Development (3)

Developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social-emotional development throughout the lifespan

Cross-sectional study

research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time

Longitudinal study

research that follows and rests the same people over time

Teratogens

agents (such as chemical and viruses) that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive function deficits in children caused by their birth mother’s heavy drinking during pregnancy

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation; as infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner

Maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

Critical period

an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli experiences produce normal development

Adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence; different reaction for everyone

Puberty

the period of s*xual maturation during which a person usually becomes capable of reproducing

Manopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

S*x

in psychology, the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male, female, or inters*x

Gender

in psychology the attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that a given culture associates with a persons biological s*x

Inters*x

possessing male and female biological s*xual characteristics at birth

Aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally

Relational aggression

an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person’s relationship or social standing

X chromosome

the s*x chromosomes found the females and males; females typically have two x chromosomes, males typically have one;

Y chromosome

the s*x chromosome typically found only in males; when paired with an x chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child

Testosterone

the most important male s*x hormone; males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male s*x organs during the fetal period, and the development of male s*x characteristics during puberty

Estrogens

s*x hormones, such as estradiol, that contribute to female s*x characteristics and are secreted in gender amounts by females by males

Primary s*x characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make s*xual reproduction possible

Secondary s*x characteristics

non-reproductive s*xual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality and body hair

Spermarche

the first ejaculation

Menarche

the first menstrual period

Role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

Gender role

a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for men and for women

S*xual aggression

any physical or verbal behavior of a s*xual nature that is unwanted or intended to harm someone physically or emotionally; can be expressed as either sexual harassment/assault

Gender identity

our personal sense of being male, female, neither, or some combination of whether this identity matches our s*x assigned at birth, and the social affiliation that may result from this identity

Social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

Androgyny

blending traditionally masculine and traditionally feminine psychological characteristics

Cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communication

Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets informationA

Assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

Accommodation

adapting our current schemas (understanding) to incorporate new informationS

Sensorimotor stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to 2 years old) at which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

Object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

Preoperational stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage (2 to 6/7 years old) at which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

Conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and numbers remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

Egocentric

in Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s POV

Concrete Operational stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (from 7 to 11 years old) at which children can perform the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete (actual, physical) events

Formal Operational stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (beginning normally at 12 years old) at which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

Scaffold

in Vygotsky’s theory, a framework that offer’s children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking

Theory of mind

people’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states; about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict

Ecological systems theory

a theory of the social environments’ influence on human development, using five nested systems (micro; meso; exo; macro; chronosystem) ranging from direct to indirect influences

Stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display

Attachment

an emotional tie with others; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to caregivers and showing distress on separation

Imprinting

the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life

Strange situtation

a procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment; a child is placed in an unfamiliar environment while their caregiver leaves and then returns and the child’s reactions are observed

Secure attachment

demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver; show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in the caregiver’s return

Insecure attachmentt

demonstrated by infants who display a clinging, anxious attachment; an avoidant attachment that resists closeness; or a disorganized attachment with no consistent behavior when separated from or reunited with caregivers

Temperament

a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

Basic trust

according to Erik Erickson, a sense that the world is predictable and trust worthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

Self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “Who am I?”

Authoritarian parents

are coersive; they impose rules and expect obedience

Permissive parents

are unrestraining; they make few demands, set few limits, and use little punishment

Neglectful parents

are uninvolved; they are neither demanding nor responsive; they are careless and inattentive, and do not seek a close relationship with their children

Authoritative parents

are confrontive; they are both demanding and responsive; they exert control by setting rules, but, especially with older children, they encourage open discussion and allow exceptions

Identity

our sense of self; according to Erickson, the adolescents task it to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

Social Identity

the “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answers to “Who am I?” that comes from our group memberships

Intimacy

in Erickson’s theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in young adulthood

Emerging adulthood

a period from about age 18 to the mid twenties, when many person in prosperous Western cultures are no longer adolescents but not yet achieved full independence as adults

Social clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement