POLISCI140 Midterm #2

hegemonic war

War for control of the entire world order—the rules of the international system as a whole. Also called world war, global war, general war, or systemic war.

total war

Warfare by one state waged to conquer and occupy another; modern total war originated in the Napoleonic Wars, which relied on conscription on a mass scale.

limited war

Military actions that seek objectives short of the surrender and occupation of the enemy.

civil war

A war between factions within a state trying to create, or prevent, a new government for the entire state or some territorial part of it.

guerrilla war

Warfare without front lines and with irregular forces operating in the midst of, and often hidden or protected by, civilian populations.

truth commissions

Governmental bodies established in several countries after internal wars to hear honest testimony and bring to light what really happened during these wars, and in exchange to offer most of the participants asylum from punishment.

conflict

A difference in preferred outcomes in a bargaining situation.

cycle theories

An effort to explain tendencies toward war in the international system as cyclical, for example, by linking wars with long waves in the world economy (Kondratieff cycles).

infantry

Foot soldiers who use assault rifles and other light weapons (mines, machine guns, etc.).

counterinsurgency

An effort to combat guerrilla armies, often including programs to “win the hearts and minds” of rural populations so that they stop sheltering guerrillas.

landmines

Concealed explosive devices, often left behind by irregular armies, that kill or maim civilians after wars end. Such mines number more than 100 million, primarily in Angola, Bosnia, Afghanistan, and Cambodia. A movement to ban landmines is under way; more than 100 states have agreed to do so.

power projection

The ability to use military force in areas far from a country’s region or sphere of influence.

nationalism

Identification with and devotion to the interests of one’s nation. It usually involves a large group of people who share a national identity and often a language, culture, or ancestry. The concept implies a definition not just of who is in that nation but who is out, an inherent “othering” of those outside the group.

ethnic groups

Large groups of people who share ancestral, language, cultural, or religious ties and a common identity.

ethnocentrism

The tendency to see one’s own group (in-group) in favorable terms and an out-group in unfavorable terms.

dehumanization

Stigmatization of enemies as subhuman or nonhuman, leading frequently to widespread violence. See also crimes against humanity and genocide.

genocide

An intentional and systematic attempt to destroy a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group, in whole or in part. It was confirmed as a crime under international law by the UN Genocide Convention (1948). See also crimes against humanity and dehumanization.

secular

Created apart from religious establishments and in which there is a high degree of separation between religious and political organizations.

Islam

A broad and diverse world religion whose divergent populations include Sunni Muslims, Shi’ite Muslims, and many smaller branches and sects from Nigeria to Indonesia, centered in the Middle East and South Asia.

Islamist

Describing a political ideology based on instituting Islamic principles and laws in government. A broad range of groups using diverse methods come under this category.

irredentism

A form of nationalism whose goal is to regain territory lost to another state; it can lead directly to violent interstate conflicts.

ethnic cleansing

Euphemism for forced displacement of an ethnic group or groups from a territory, accompanied by massacres and other human rights violations; it has occurred after the breakup of multinational states, notably in the former Yugoslavia.

territorial waters

The waters near states’ shores generally treated as part of national territory. The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea provides for a 12-mile territorial sea (exclusive national jurisdiction over shipping and navigation) and a 200-mile exclusive economic zone (EEZ; covering exclusive fishing and mineral rights but allowing for free navigation by all). See also high seas and UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).

airspace

The space above a state that is considered its territory, in contrast to outer space, which is considered international territory.

drones

Another term for unmanned aerial vehicles; these small flying vehicles, which can be armed or unarmed, are increasingly used in combat and reconnaissance operations.

electronic warfare

Use of the electromagnetic spectrum (radio waves, radar, infrared, etc.) in war, such as employing electromagnetic signals for one’s own benefit while denying their use to an enemy.

stealth technology

The use of special radar-absorbent materials and unusual shapes in the design of aircraft, missiles, and ships to scatter enemy radar.

state-sponsored terrorism

The use of terrorist groups by states, usually under control of a state’s intelligence agency, to achieve political aims.

weapons of mass destruction (WMDs)

Nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons, all distinguished from conventional weapons by their enormous potential lethality and their relative lack of discrimination in whom they kill.

fissionable material

Uranium-235 and plutonium-239, whose atoms split apart and release energy via a chain reaction when an atomic bomb explodes.

ballistic missiles

The major strategic delivery vehicle for nuclear weapons; it carries a warhead along a trajectory (typically rising at least 50 miles high) and lets it drop on the target. See also intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs).

intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs)

The longest-range ballistic missiles, able to travel 5,000 miles. See also ballistic missiles.

cruise missile

A small winged missile that can navigate across thousands of miles of previously mapped terrain to reach a particular target; it can carry either a nuclear or a conventional warhead.

Missile Technology Control Regime

A set of agreements through which industrialized states try to limit the flow of missile-relevant technology to developing countries.

Chemical Weapons Convention (1992)

An agreement that bans the production and possession of chemical weapons and includes strict verification provisions and the threat of sanctions against violators and nonparticipants in the treaty.

Biological Weapons Convention (1972)

An agreement that prohibits the development, production, and possession of biological weapons but makes no provision for inspections.

Proliferation

The spread of weapons of mass destruction (nuclear, chemical, or biological weapons) into the hands of more actors.

Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) (1968)

A treaty that created a framework for controlling the spread of nuclear materials and expertise, including the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), a UN agency based in Vienna that is charged with inspecting the nuclear power industry in NPT member states to prevent secret military diversions of nuclear

mutually assured destruction (MAD)

The possession of second-strike nuclear capabilities, which ensures that neither of two adversaries could prevent the other from destroying it in an all-out war. See also deterrence.

Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI)

A U.S. effort, also known as Star Wars, to develop defenses that could shoot down incoming ballistic missiles, spurred by President Ronald Reagan in 1983. See also Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty.

Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty (1972)

A treaty that prohibited either the United States or the Soviet Union from using a ballistic missile defense as a shield. See also mutually assured destruction (MAD) and Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI).

Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) (1996)

A treaty that bans all nuclear weapons testing, thereby broadening the ban on atmospheric testing negotiated in 1963.

international norms

The expectations held by participants about typical interactions among states.

international organizations (IOs)

Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) such as the UN and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) such as the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC).

UN General Assembly

A body composed of representatives of all states that allocates UN funds, passes nonbinding resolutions, and coordinates programs in the Global South and various autonomous agencies through the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC).

UN Security Council

A body composed of five permanent great power members (each of which can veto resolutions) and ten rotating members that makes decisions about international peace and security, including the dispatch of UN peacekeeping forces.

UN Secretariat

The UN’s executive branch, led by the Secretary General.

peacebuilding

The use of military peacekeepers, civilian administrators, police trainers, and similar efforts to sustain peace agreements and build stable, democratic governments in societies recovering from civil wars. Since 2005, a UN Peacebuilding Commission has coordinated and supported these activities.

UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)

An institution established in 1964 to promote development in the Global South through various trade proposals.

World Health Organization (WHO)

An organization based in Geneva that provides technical assistance to improve health conditions in the third world and conducts major immunization campaigns.

supranational

Larger institutions and groupings such as the European Union to which state authority or national identity is subordinated.

international integration

The process by which supranational institutions come to replace national ones; the gradual shift of some sovereignty from the state to regional or global structures.

neofunctionalism

A theory that holds that economic integration (functionalism) generates a “spillover” effect, resulting in increased political integration.

security community

A situation in which low expectations of interstate violence permit a high degree of political cooperation—as, for example, among NATO members.

European Union (EU)

The official term for the European Community (formerly the European Economic Community) and associated treaty organizations. At the beginning of 2023, the EU had 27 member states, after Great Britain exited the organization. See also Maastricht Treaty.

Treaty of Rome (1957)

The founding document of the European Economic Community (EEC), or Common Market, now subsumed by the European Union.

Euratom

An organization created by the 1957 Treaty of Rome to coordinate nuclear power development by pooling research, investment, and management.

free trade area

A zone in which there are no tariffs or other restrictions on the movement of goods and services across borders. See also customs union.

customs union

A free trade area in which participating states adopt a unified set of tariffs on goods imported from countries that are not members. See also free trade area.

common market

A zone in which labor and capital (as well as goods) flow freely across borders.

Common Agricultural Policy (CAP)

A European Union policy based on the principle that a subsidy extended to farmers in any member country should be extended to farmers in all member countries.

European Commission

A European Union body whose members, while appointed by states, are supposed to represent EU interests. Supported by a multinational civil service in Brussels, the Commission’s role is to identify problems and propose solutions to the Council of the European Union. See also Council of the European Union.

Council of the European Union

A European Union institution in which the relevant ministers (foreign, economic, agriculture, finance, etc.) of each member state meet to enact legislation and reconcile national interests. Formerly known as the Council of Ministers. When the meeting takes place among the state leaders, it is called the “European Council.” See also European Commission.

European Parliament

A quasi-legislative body of the European Union that operates as a watchdog over the European Commission and has limited legislative power.

European Court of Justice

A judicial arm of the European Union, based in Luxembourg. The court has actively established its jurisdiction and its right to overrule national law when it conflicts with EU law.

Single European Act (1985)

An act that set a target date of the end of 1992 for the creation of a true common market (free cross-border movement of goods, capital, people, and services) in the European Community (EC).

Maastricht Treaty

A treaty signed in the Dutch city of Maastricht and ratified in 1992; it commits the European Union to monetary union (a single currency and European Central Bank) and to a common foreign policy. See also European Union (EU).

euro

Also called the ECU (European currency unit); a single European currency used by 20 members of the European Union (EU).

Lisbon Treaty

A European Union agreement that replaces a failed attempt at an EU constitution with a similar set of reforms strengthening central EU authority and modifying voting procedures among the EU’s expanded membership.

World Court

Also called the International Court of Justice (ICJ). The judicial arm of the UN; located in The Hague, it hears only cases between states.

immigration law

National law(s) that establish the conditions under which foreigners may travel and visit within a state’s territory, work within the state, and sometimes become citizens of the state (naturalization).

diplomatic recognition

The process by which the status of embassies and that of an ambassador as an official state representative are explicitly defined.

diplomatic immunity

A privilege under which diplomats’ activities fall outside the jurisdiction of the host country’s national courts.

just wars

A category in international law and political theory that defines when wars can be justly started (jus ad bellum) and how they can be justly fought (jus in bello). See also war crimes.

human rights

The rights of all people to be free from abuses such as torture or imprisonment for their political beliefs (political and civil rights) and to enjoy certain minimum economic and social protections (economic and social rights).

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) (1948)

The core UN document on human rights; although it lacks the force of international law, it sets forth international norms regarding behavior by governments toward their own citizens and foreigners alike.

Amnesty International

An influential nongovernmental organization (NGO) that operates globally to monitor and try to rectify glaring abuses of political (not economic or social) human rights.

responsibility to protect (R2P)

Principle adopted by world leaders in 2005 holding governments responsible for protecting civilians from genocide and crimes against humanity perpetrated within a sovereign state.

war crimes

Violations of the law governing the conduct of warfare, such as mistreatment of prisoners of war or the unnecessary targeting of civilians. See also just wars.

crimes against humanity

A category of legal offenses created at the Nuremberg trials after World War II to encompass genocide and other acts committed by the political and military leaders of the Third Reich (Nazi Germany). See also dehumanization and genocide.

International Criminal Court (ICC)

A permanent tribunal for war crimes and crimes against humanity.

prisoners of war (POWs)

Soldiers who have surrendered and who thereby receive special status under the laws of war.

International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)

A nongovernmental organization (NGO) that provides practical support, such as medical care, food, and letters from home, to civilians caught in wars and to prisoners of war (POWs). Exchanges of POWs are usually negotiated through the ICRC.

digital divide

The gap in access to information technologies between rich and poor people and between the global North and the global South.

cultural imperialism

A term critical of U.S. dominance of the emerging global culture.

tragedy of the commons

A collective goods dilemma that is created when common environmental assets (such as the world’s fisheries) are depleted or degraded through the failure of states to cooperate effectively. One solution is to “enclose” the commons (split them into individually owned pieces); international regimes can also be a (partial) solution.

enclosure

The splitting of a common area or good into privately owned pieces, giving individual owners an incentive to manage resources responsibly.

climate change

A long-term change in average weather patterns that now define the earth’s local, regional, and global climates caused by the emission of greenhouse gases produced by burning fossil fuels—oil, coal, and natural gas. See also greenhouse gases.

global warming

A slow, long-term rise in the average world temperature caused by the emission of greenhouse gases produced by burning fossil fuels. See also greenhouse gases.

UN Environment Program (UNEP)

A program that monitors environmental conditions and, among other activities, works with the World Meteorological Organization to measure changes in global climate.

greenhouse gases

Carbon dioxide and other gases that, when concentrated in the atmosphere, act like the glass in a greenhouse, holding energy in and leading to global warming and climate change.

Kyoto Protocol (1997)

A major international treaty on global warming, which entered into effect in 2005 and mandated cuts in carbon emissions. Almost all the world’s major countries, except the United States, were participants.

Paris Climate Agreement

The main international agreement on global warming signed in 2015. Calls for keeping a global temperature rise this century well below 2 degrees Celsius above preindustrial levels. Nearly all countries of the world are participants.

ozone layer

The part of the atmosphere that screens out harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun. Certain chemicals used in industrial economies break down the ozone layer.

Montreal Protocol (1987)

An agreement on protection of the ozone layer in which states pledged to reduce and then eliminate use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). It is the most successful environmental treaty to date.

biodiversity

The tremendous diversity of plant and animal species making up the earth’s (global, regional, and local) ecosystems.