psych exam 2 better

Stages of Development (L)

sensory motor (0-18m); learning how to take in info from the environment and as a result being able to develop the ability to manipulate the environment// the development of the brain so that the child can now move with coordinated movements (8-9m crawling) (12-14m walking)

pre operational (2-6 years); child bases their judgement about another person on appearance  // object permanence, think masks on halloween // has to do with conservation, perspective taking, and has a lot to do with egocentrism // child begins to use form of logic (not correct, but still logic) 

concrete operations (7-11 years); can start to use adult kinds of logic but can only reason about things right in front of them // haven't developed the concept of abstract thought 

formal operations (11+) ; ability to do what you could do at concrete but you can now think about hypotheticals (hypothetical deductive method)

General Categorization Process (L)-  

the mental process of grouping people, objects, or things together based on shared characteristics to make the world easier to understand.

ex; A young child might think of someone only as a girl, while an older child can recognize that she is both young, Black, and a woman.

Constancy (L)-  

Understanding that a person's race or gender category stays the same even if their appearance, clothes, or hairstyle changes.

ex; A child understands that a boy doesn't become a girl just by wearing a dress.

an understanding that a person’s membership in a social category, such as gender or race, does not change across time as a matter of superficial changes in appearance

Racial Awareness (L)-  

The ability to recognize and notice racial differences between people // 2nd stage of child development of prejudice

ex; A young child notices that people have different skin colors and begins recognizing racial groups.

Category Salience (L)-  

refers to the idea that one stands out from the background— something salient grabs people's attention 

When a particular group identity, such as race, gender, or age, stands out to us and becomes especially noticeable when we look at someone.

ex; If a person is the only woman in a room full of men, her gender may stand out more.

Self-Identification (L)-  

The ability to identify yourself as belonging to a particular social group //3rd stage of child development of prejudice

ex; these people are similar to me, these people are different from me.

Racial/Ethnic Attitudes (L) and Racial/Ethnic Preference (L)- 

stage 4 of the stages of development of prejudice (ages 8-9) // prejudice peaks around 9 years old, these kids are probably going to show the most amount of ingroup favorability (prejudice) that they will ever show // declines between ages of 11-12, the tendency to prefer your own race diminishes rapidly, to about what you would see them have as an adult

Minority Self-Esteem (L)-  

When people from minority groups protect their self-esteem by separating their self-worth from areas where they may face prejudice or discrimination.

black people seem to have no correlation between self esteem and social class // high self esteem is around the same range across the board // always had to cope with hardship, social class doesnt affect their self esteem as much 

Children and Intergroup Contact (T)-  

Contact between children from different social groups, such as different racial or ethnic groups, can reduce prejudice and improve understanding.

Majority group children who have more contact with minority group children express less prejudice than those who have had less intergroup contact. But. Just contact with members of other groups is not sufficient to reduce bias. 

Homosociality (T)-  

Social bonding between people of the same gender. 

Essentialism (T)-  

The belief that members of a social group share an underlying, unchangeable quality that makes them who they are.

the belief that members of a category all have similar psychological characteristics and that these characteristics are unchanging

Cooperative Learning (T)-  

a type of group learning environment that implements the necessary contact conditions thought to reduce prejudice as part of the day-to-day educational process 

Aboud’s Developmental Stages (L)-  

A theory explaining how children's racial attitudes and prejudice change as they grow older.

categorization (1-2 years): first category is gender; can put people into groups (categorization) but cannot do it reliably, and many cant do it permanently 

awareness (2-4 years) (race/ethnic awareness): child is aware that people in same categories look the same, and people in different categorizes look different; Children begin noticing racial differences and may show preferences for their own group.

identification (5/6-7 years) (self identification with social InGroups): start identifying themselves; black/white children develop identification at different rates, one develops sooner than the other; Children's racial attitudes become more rigid, and they may show stronger in-group favoritism.

racial/ethnic attitudes & preferences (8-9 years): as with every period, lots of overlap between this stage and the prior stage; prejudice peaks around 9 years old, these kids probably going to show the most amount of ingroup favorability (prejudice) thatthey will ever show; goes down around 11-12 years old, the tendency to prefer your own race diminishes rapidly, about what youd see them to have as an adult; Children become better at understanding other people's perspectives, and prejudice may decline.

Prejudice-Reduction Intervention(T)-  

A planned activity or program designed to reduce prejudice and improve attitudes toward people from different social groups.

ex; A school brings children from different racial backgrounds together to cooperate on a group project

Socialization Agents-  

Parents, peer groups, schools, media (all types), religion 

Role of Parents (Racism) (L)-  

noted that parents dont play much of a role, if they do it is indirectly (indirect teaching) // prejudice is like a cold, its caught and not taught 

Role of Parents (Sexism) (L)- 

parents direct role models and have impact quite directly // impact by implementing gender roles either consciously or unconsciously

Media Cultivation Hypothesis (L)-  

The idea that repeated exposure to media can shape how people view the world and influence their beliefs and stereotypes about social groups.

ex; A child who repeatedly sees a certain racial group portrayed negatively on TV may develop negative stereotypes about that group.

Role of Media (Racism) (L)-  

it was found, surprisingly, media does not play a large role in increasing racism in society // both black and white children get a lot of their info of white and black people through tv, movies, and social media // black people getting to see ppl on tv who look like them, even if stereotypically racist roles, it is positive/has pos. impact on them 

Role of Media (Sexism) (L)- 

it was found, as with parents, media does impact boys and girls and influence sexism // studies have found that taking adolescent girls and show them scenes in which women are portrayed in a sexist manner (housewives but not professionals, passive and submissive) those girls who see that stuff have an immediate drop in their self esteem, it comes back the next day or so but with repeated exposure, the self esteem has more difficulty returning to baseline // overexposure will develop lower self esteem in young girls & make it more difficult for them to make the change back to baseline self esteem

Realistic Group Conflict (L)-  

prejudice is caused by perceived threat from another group // the idea that prejudice develops when groups compete for limited resources, such as jobs, money, education, or housing // threat can be real but not necessary

Goal Compatibility (L)-  

two groups goals are compatible or can be achieved at the same time without one group preventing the other from succeeding // when one group achieves its goals, the other groups should be able to achieve its goals // one group achieving its goals sets the stage for the other group achieving its goals // doesnt have to be the same goal, but usually is // can be same goals but different ways of getting there/might conflict with one another

Zero-Sum Game (L)-  

the belief that one group's gain must come at another group's expense. If one group gets more, the other group must get less // when one group wins, the other loses // outcome always totals to 0 // “whatever you do affects what i am able to do” 

Dominance (L)-  

the control or power one group has over another group allowing influence over decisions, resources, or opportunities // having power over another group

Group Competition (L)-  

each group fighting/competing with another group for limited resources // when 2 groups in competition, each group views another as a threat, causing hostility

Superordinate Goals (L)-  

goals that neither group can accomplish on their own 

Group Cooperation (L)-  

groups working together toward a shared goal instead of competing for limited resources can reduce prejudice and improve relationships between groups // this is not a solution— once goal is achieved, it is over; while it can alleviate some prejudice/hatred short-term, once it is done, it's over & we go back to square one

Formation of Hate Groups (T)-  

people who share strong prejudices come together to form groups that promote hatred toward another social group // shared prejudice → group formation → organized hatred

Relative Deprivation (L)-  

we dont feel deprived of something until we look around us/compare ourselves and see that we are not as well off as "they" are // the degree to which a person feels deprived as an individual (personal _______) or as a member of a group (group _______)

Adaptation Level Phenomenon (L) -  

process of getting used to whatever level youre at (getting used to highs/lows/love/devastation after a breakup) // the idea that we adapt or become accustomed to whatever level we are at/what we are feeling (buying a new car can get people excited, but then they dont care after a few months even if its the exact same) // argues that it requires an ever-increasing abundance of wealth to stay satisfied // people get used to their current situation and judge it based on what they are accustomed to

Revolution of Rising Expectations (L)-  

people's living conditions improve and they begin expecting even more progress; their expectations rise faster than what they actually receive, leading to frustration/conflict

Conformity Correlates of Prejudice (L)-  

Factors that influence whether people conform to their group's prejudiced beliefs to fit in or remain unbiased— someone may express prejudice because their friends do and they want to fit in // conformity is the yielding or giving in to real or perceived group pressure, all about social acceptance like prejudice is 

Frustration-Aggression (L)-  

occurs when people feel blocked from reaching a goal and become aggressive— for every frustration that one experiences, one must simply aggress

ways to handle frustration-aggression: directly aggress, catharsis, displacement

Scapegoating (L)-  

holding outgroups responsible for something that they had nothing to do with 

Realistic Conflict Theory (T)- 

prejudice develops when groups compete for limited resources, such as jobs, money, or education // proposes that people dislike members of out groups because their ingroup is competing with the out group for resources // proposes that people are motivated by a desire to maximize the rewards they receive in life, even if that means taking those rewards away from other people

Distributive Justice (T)-  

the perception that outcomes are being distributed on the expected basis that people who deserve more get more, rather than on some other unfair basis such as ingroup favoritism

Procedural Justice (T)-  

the fairness of the process by which rewards are distributed // the belief that the process used to make decisions and distribute rewards is fair

Relative Gratification (T)-  

a sense of satisfaction that derives from the belief that one’s ingroup is better off than other groups (in contrast to relative deprivation, in which people perceive their group as less well off than other groups) // feeling satisfied because you believe your group is better off than another group

Displacement-  

when someone takes out frustrations not on whatever caused the frustrations, but onto an unsuspecting innocent person because they're closest to you and easiest to aggress on because they have less power (you can take it out on them but they can't get you back because of the power imbalance, may be a small pet, wife, kids, etc.) // redirecting anger or frustration from the actual source onto another person or group // this often accounts for abuse towards others as the aggressor is going to take it out on a target weaker than them & incapable of fighting back// unhealthy way to express frustrations// connects to prejudice in scapegoating 

Intergroup Threat Theory (T)-  

prejudice derived from two types of perceived threat to ones in Group: perceptions of realistic threats, and perceptions of symbolic threats // greater identification with the ingroup leads to more perceived realistic and symbolic threats, and higher levels of these factors lead to more prejudice toward the out group, the reverse is also true

Regional Differences in Prejudice (L)-  

differences in how much prejudice exists across different geographic areas or regions— (US specific) the south has more of a reputation for being racist while the north had a reputation for antisemitism // there are regional differences in prejudices because the prejudiced views are norms to specific regions // regional difference does not play as big of a role as we thought

Religiosity (L)-  

how devout one is to their religion // subtypes: intrinsic and extrinsic (strongly and directly linked to higher prejudice)

Effects of Threat (T)-    

when people believe another group threatens their safety, resources, or values, they may develop fear, hostility, and prejudice toward that group

Cognition/Environment Interplay (T)- 

how children's thinking and their surroundings influence each other as they develop prejudice // child notices racial differences (cognition) and learns from parents or peers how to feel about those groups (environment)

Methods of Study in Children (T)-  

researchers study children by observing their behavior, asking them questions, or using simple experiments to understand how their thoughts and attitudes develop // researchers might show children pictures of dolls with different skin colors and ask which doll they prefer

Egocentrism-  

inability to easily understand another person's perspective because you focus on your own thoughts and feelings

double gratification-

find that we are doing better than our ingroup and our outgroup 

double deprivation-

find that we are not doing as well as our ingroup or outgroup 

egoistic deprivation-

find that we are not doing as well as our ingroup, but are doing better than or similar to our outgroup // “im not doing as well as i could be or should be”, attributed to "in the wrong job" since worse than ingroup, but communicates a sense of superiority // feeling personally disadvantaged compared to others // aka “individual _________”

fraternal deprivation-

find that we are doing better than our ingroup but not as well as our outgroup (as a marginalized member) // “the reason im not doing as well is because i am marginalized, im already doing better than my ingroup so my marginalized identity is holding me back” // feeling that your group is disadvantaged compared to another group // aka “group _________”

Sherif et al. (1958-1962)-

how competition between groups creates prejudice and how cooperation can reduce conflict // researchers studied approximately 22-24 boys at a summer camp, divided the boys into two groups (eagles & rattlers— each group developed its own identity, rules, and friendships), introduced competitive games and contests with prizes for the winning group, and created shared problems that required both groups to cooperate to achieve a common goal // the competition led to hostility, name-calling, negative stereotypes, fighting, and overall conflict between the groups— the boys began favoring their own group and treating the other group negatively, working together toward shared goals helped reduce hostility and improve relations for a short period of time between the groups

Davey (1973) (J-Curve)-  

how changes in people's living conditions and expectations can lead to frustration, resentment, and prejudice // the J-curve hypothesis examines what happens when people's circumstances improve and then suddenly worsen— people develop higher expectations as their quality of life improves, if their progress is interrupted or reversed, the gap between what they expect and what they experience can create frustration // people may feel deprived when their expectations are no longer being met // frustration can lead to anger, resentment, and social unrest // when people's living conditions improve and then decline unexpectedly, their rising expectations can turn into frustration and resentment

Pettigrew & Walker (1984)-

how feeling disadvantaged compared with other people or groups can lead to dissatisfaction and intergroup conflict // reviewed and analyzed existing research on relative deprivation theory, examined how people compare their own situation with that of others distinguished between feeling personally disadvantaged and feeling that one's group is disadvantaged // found that people can feel deprived even when their basic needs are met if they believe others are better off // people's feelings of unfairness depend not only on what they have, but also on how they compare themselves or their group with others

theory of relative deprivation as it fits in with prejudice // we compare ourselves to our ingroup and our outgroup: when comparing to our ingroup, we look at economic standing and are either better off than or equal to our ingroup (making as much as or more than) or make less than our ingroup; when comparing to our outgroup, we look at economic standing and are either better off than or equal to our outgroup (making as much as or more than) or make less than our outgroup 

Gordon (1943)-  

interviewed jewish students at his university and found that he could divide them into 2 groups based on their answers to a questionnaire "do you ever feel that ppl discriminate against you because youre Jewish" // one group said no other group said yes, he then gave them a questionnaire that asked attitudes about race (black/white), latinos, and asians; the group that said yes (they felt prejudice for being jewish) had higher levels of prejudice // found that when the interviewees felt the most discriminated against, they had the highest levels of prejudice 

how prejudice and racial attitudes affect relations between racial groups // examined prejudice and race relations during a period of racial tension in the United States, focused on how social attitudes and discrimination contributed to racial conflict // racial prejudice was recognized as an important social problem and researchers increasingly examined how attitudes toward racial groups could contribute to discrimination and conflict // prejudice is shaped by social attitudes and can contribute to discrimination and racial conflict

Miller & Bugelski (1948)-  

how frustration can increase prejudice toward other groups through displacement of aggression // went to a boot camp on a saturday (bank night) and interviewed two groups of recruits: first, they gave the recruits a pre-test questionnaire to measure their prejudice against Jewish people and Japanese people, then they conducted a 5/6 hour test, with group 1 starting at 2pm and ending at 7pm so they had time to clean up and go to bank night while group 2 started at 5pm and did not end until midnight— this group did not get to go to bank night, which frustrated them— they were then given a post-test questionnaire to measure their prejudice towards the same groups and the second group scored higher in prejudice after missing bank night, which supported the concept of frustration-aggression 

Pettigrew (1959; 1960)-

how regional culture, social pressure, and conformity influence racial prejudice // prejudice is influenced not only by individual personality but also by the social norms and cultural expectations people experience in their communities

looked in 2 different regions of the country, south and north, and measured racism and antisemitism // authoritarian personality had been done a decade earlier and expected that if you were high on f scale you’d be high in both sections but that didn't happen, instead it showed that the north, regardless of how high or low on the f scale, showed high antisemitism and low racism, while the south had low antisemitism and high racism // found that prejudice isnt from personality but seems to stem from where you live/from what part of the country you are in/regions (regions differ from kinds of prejudice that they have and the f scale has nothing to do with it) and suggests that the region youre in is what matters which suggests that its the people that you grow up around/grow up with that determine what your attitude is going to be // why is antisemitism so high in the north but not in the south? more exposure to and more information about jewish people 

Radke & Traeger (1949)-

how children develop racial and religious prejudice // researchers studied children's attitudes toward different racial and religious groups and examined whether children showed prejudice without direct contact with those groups // children as young as 5-7 showed prejudice, white children's rejection of black children increased with age: kindergarten: 43%, second grade: 75% // children could develop prejudice without firsthand experience with another group // children can develop prejudice at a young age by learning attitudes from the people and society around them // asked first and second graders who were white why some children had a different skin color than they did // "he got dirt on his face because his mother didn't wash him" // have the ability to categorize, but not the ability to see that what you are today is what you will be in the future 

Katz & Seavey (1978)-  

how labels affect children's perceptions and judgments // studied 64 second-grade and sixth-grade students, randomly assigned students to four conditions involving different types of labeling and used purple and green faces that were smiling or frowning to test how labels influenced perception // study examined how different labels affected children's judgments of the faces, the labels attached to people can influence how children perceive and judge them // indicated that children have prejudice and people dont want to believe it // found that 2nd grade black children were much better at seeing similar colors in faces and much better than white 2nd graders// were able to differentiate color better, indicating they are more color aware than the white children

Goodman (1952)-

how young children develop racial awareness and racial attitudes // interviewed 100 different families in boston (50 black & 50 white) // had several researchers to observe families at least once a week & speak to children in each family at length // found that, while white kids in study never expressed a desire to be black, a number of the black children in her sample "demonstrated much denial and conflict about their evaluations of their blackness."// black children sometimes showed insecurity or conflict about their racial identity, while White children generally showed greater security about theirs // children recognize racial differences at a very young age, and society's attitudes about race can affect how they feel about their own racial identity

Doll Studies-

Clark and Clark (1949): two identical dolls, aside from their race, shown to children one child at a time ▪ Prompted with statements/questions like "show me the nice doll, the pretty doll" and "which looks most like you"

Katz & Zalk (1981) introduced children to different skin-shade puppets, from pale white to mid-shade to very dark shade of brown, using the same age group as Clark and Clark, preference of black children with white dolls shifts a lot the lighter the skin color of the doll, as long as it looks like it's not completely white; black children choose that doll as often as they choose the white doll (maybe in some cases even more often)

Clark & Clark (1947)-

how racial prejudice affects children's racial identity, preferences, and self-image // studied 253 black children between ages 3 and 7, showed each child four dolls that were identical except for skin color and hair color and asked children questions such as: which doll do you like to play with? which doll is nice or bad? and which doll looks like you? // used their answers to measure racial preference, racial awareness, and self-identification, about two-thirds of the children preferred the white doll, many children described the white doll positively and the black doll negatively // children generally recognized racial differences, but some showed preferences that favored white features // racism and segregation can negatively affect black children's self-image, leading some children to prefer the group society treats more positively

Rosenberg & Simmons (1971)- 

how racial discrimination, social status, and a child's social environment relate to self-esteem // studied black and white schoolchildren in baltimore, maryland, surveyed a random sample of 2,625 students in grades 3-12, measured children's self-esteem and examined how factors such as race, family background, school environment, and social status related to their self-image // black children did not automatically have lower self-esteem than white children— self-esteem was influenced by the social environment and the way children interpreted their group's status, a supportive environment could help protect children's self-esteem despite racial inequality // being part of a group that faces discrimination does not automatically mean a child will have low self-esteem; their social environment and group experiences matter

Hovland & Sears (1940)-  

how economic frustration may lead people to redirect aggression toward an unrelated racial group // examined historical data from the american south between 1882 and 1930, compared yearly cotton prices and other economic indicators with the number of lynchings of black americans // tested whether worse economic conditions were associated with more racial violence // they found that lower cotton values were associated with more lynchings of black people, they interpreted this pattern as evidence that frustrated white people sometimes displaced their aggression onto black americans, who were not responsible for their economic difficulties // later, researchers challenged the strength of the original statistical relationship, so the findings should be interpreted cautiously // frustration-aggression and displacement: economic hardship can contribute to aggression against an unrelated group, although this study's original statistical conclusions were later questioned

Explain the relationship between religious orientation and prejudice. Of what relevance are intrinsic and extrinsic orientations? Describe “quest” and “fundamentalism,” and explain why they’re important as well. Be sure to define all terms in your answer. 

Religious orientation and prejudice are connected because, depending on the type of religious orientation, or religiosity, there is a very strong link between said orientation and prejudice. Religiosity is how devout one is to religion and it is strongly correlated with prejudice and found to be directly linked to racism in the south. It showed a very strong relationship between how often someone attended church and how prejudice they were. The orientations, intrinsic and extrinsic, are very important in this conversation because extrinsic religiosity is more likely to be prejudiced. Intrinsic religiosity is a feeling of devotion to one's religion to the point where the person feels like they have a personal relationship with God and do not have to so much as step foot in the house of worship. There are also quests, which are people looking for the meaning of life and will try anything and everything to find the answer, they are very spiritual and found to be the lowest in prejudice. There is also extrinsic religiosity, which is defined as people who view their religion as instrumental (or transactional) meaning not for religion's sake, but rather what you can get from it, or a means to an end. It enables them to see and be seen at the House of worship. Extrinsic religiosity is more likely to be prejudiced because they are not truly devoutly religious, but they go to church just to look good and bond with the community, which is why church attendance is highly linked to extrinsic religiosity and prejudice. Finally, there is fundamentalism which is found in every religion and consists of religious extremists who believe the holy book it is the literal word of god and believe that their way is the only way and the best way. 

Describe the findings of Pettigrew’s (1959; 1960) study of conformity and prejudice. List the six demographic variables that Pettigrew says predict the expression of prejudice. Which demographic groups were most likely to express prejudice? Which were least likely? Why? 

looked in 2 different regions of the country, south and north, and asked people how they view race and how they view jewish people (measured racism and antisemitism) // found that in the north, regardless of high or low on f scale, showed high antisemitism and low racism; south had low antisemitism and high racism // found that prejudice isnt from personality but seems to stem from where you live, from what part of the country you are in, the regions // regions differ from kinds of prejudice that they have and the f scale has nothing to do with it // suggests that the region youre in is what matters which suggests that its the people that you grow up around/grow up with, that determine what your attitude is going to be 

most likely: gender- women because they were able to spend more time with other women to discuss their racist beliefs ; social mobility- people moving down because they are blocked from moving upward; church attendance and religiosity- people with extrinsic religiosity because they are not truly religious but only go to church to look good and bond with community; party identification- political extremists because the more you identify with a party the more likely you are to be prejudiced; education- uneducated people because they are more likely to go with the flow of others without thinking about it; military service- non-military members because the military is an international/intergroup experience, so military experience reduces prejudice

least likely: gender- men because women were able to spend more time with other women to discuss their racist beliefs but men did not have that ability; social mobility- people moving up because social mobility is tied to prejudice through frustration aggression and theyre not being blocked from a goal; church attendance and religiosity- quests because they were found to be lowest in prejudice or people with intrinsic religiosity; party identification- anyone that are not political extremists because extremists show more prejudice; education- educated people, people with higher education are less likely to conform and thus less likely to express racism in their community; military service- people who served at least one tour; the military is an international/intergroup experience, military experience reduced prejudice and did not increase it 

Describe and explain in detail Davey’s (1973) J-curve theory of the “revolution of rising expectations.” What controversial conclusion does the theory suggest about the use (or non-use) of government means to achieve group equality? 

Davey's J -Curve theory of the revolution of rising expectations Examines how changes in people's living conditions and expectations could lead to frustration, resentment, and prejudice and examines what happens when people's circumstances improve and then suddenly worsen, people develop higher expectations as their quality of life improves— if their progress is interrupted or reversed, the gap between what they expect and what they experience can create frustration. The theory suggests that there is really no point in giving people resources in the 1st place if their needs will never truly be met. 

Describe in detail the differences between Black and White children in their development of group preferences. (Hint: You’ll want to consider the doll studies and the research cited in “See Baby Discriminate”.) 

Black children are more color aware than white children are as early as second grade (about 7/8 years old), but white children identify with being white about 2-3 years sooner than black children identify with being black, but by 8-9 years old, they both identify with their own races. Group preferences can start very early, which is noted in the doll studies by Clark & Clark and Katz & Zalk, where both black and white children preferred the white dolls or light skinned dolls, saying that the black dolls were negative traits such as dirty, bad, mean, or ugly