AP Bio Functional Units, Macromolecules, and pH

–OH

Hydroxyl group - polar + increases solubility + found in sugars and alcohols

–COOH

Carboxyl group - acidic + found in amino acids and fatty acids

–NH₂

Amino group - basic + found in amino acids

–PO₄

Phosphate group - highly negative + key in ATP and nucleic acids + used for energy transfer

–C=O

Carbonyl group - aldehydes/ketones + affects reactivity + found in sugars

–SH

Sulfhydryl group - stabilizes protein structure via disulfide bridges

Carb elements

C H O (ratio ~1:2:1)

Carb monomer

monosaccharide (glucose & fructose)

Carb types

monosaccharides disaccharides polysaccharides

Carb ex.

starch glycogen cellulose chitin

Carb function

energy storage and structural support

Carb covalent bond linking monomers

glycosidic linkage

Lipid elements

C H O (very little O)

Lipid monomer

no true monomer + built from glycerol and fatty acids

Lipid types

triglycerides phospholipids steroids

Lipid ex.

fats oils cholesterol estrogen testosterone

Lipid function

long‑term energy storage + membranes + signaling hormones

Lipid covalent bond linking monomers

ester linkage

Protien elements

C H O N (sometimes S)

Protein monomer

amino acid

Protein types

enzymes structural proteins transport proteins antibodies

Protein ex.

hemoglobin keratin actin catalase

Protein function

catalysis + structure + transport + signaling

Protein covalent bond linking monomers

peptide bond

Nucliec Acid elements

C H O N P

Nucliec Acid monomer

nucleotide

Nucliec Acid types

DNA RNA

Nucliec Acid ex.

adenine (thymine replaced by uracil in mRNA) guanine cytosine

Nucliec Acid function

store and transmit genetic information

Nucliec Acid covalent bond linking monomers

phosphodiester bond

H⁺ donor (Acid)

releases hydrogen ions + lowers pH + example: HCl

H⁺ acceptor (Base)

accepts hydrogen ions + raises pH + example: NaOH

How does acid affect pH?

pH = -log[H+] so with acids additional H+ pH decreases. Think of it as pressure of hydrogen: acid adds more free H+s so presure increases. Relationship is inverse so pH then falls.

Vitalism

Debunct scientific belief that only organisms can make organic molecules, and there’s some magic life force

Mechanism

Science follows chemical and physical laws that can be done in a beaker

Wohler & Kolbe

Used vinegar to synthetically produce urine, the first man made biomolecule

Stanley Miller

Simulated the atmospheric conditions of early earth (primordial soup) and zapped it, resulting in organic molecules, suggesting an origin of life

Hydrocarbons

Only H and C, vary in length, shape, and # of bonds. Ex.: C3H8 (Propane)

Pyrimidine bases?

Cleopatra’s Tomb en un Pyramid : cytosine + thymine(and uracil) = Pyrimidines

Purine bases?

Guanine and Adenine

Alcohol

Organic compounds characterized by one or more hydroxyl groups attached to a carbon atom of an alkyl group

Alkane

hydrogen and carbon atoms arranged in a tree structure in which all the carbon–carbon bonds are single

Alkyl

an alkane missing one hydrogen atom

Ketone

Carbonyl group bonded to two carbon atoms

Aldehyde

Carbonyl group bonded to a hydrogen atom: -CHO

Thiol

A molecule with a sulfhydryl

Amino Acids type #?

20 unique

Variable properties of Amino Acids

Polar, nonpolar, electrical charge

Primary Structure

Sequence of Amino Acids, coded by the DNA, not functional

Secondary Structure

Coiling and folding of the molecule, due to hydrogen bonds, not functional

Tertiary Structure

H bonds, stabilizing sulfur bridges, sometimes functional

Quaternary Structure

2+ polypeptide chains

Potential Energy where?

Stored in bonds

1st law of thermodynamics

Energy cannot be created or destroyed

2nd law of thermodynamics

Energy is eventually lost as heat

ΔG meaning?

Gibb’s free energy / available energy / usable energy

ΔG<0

Reaction is spontanous