Social Psychology: Research Methods, The Self, Beliefs, Attitudes, Culture, Conformity, and Persuasion

A complete set of vocabulary flashcards defining core terms and concepts across research methods, the self, social beliefs, attitudes, culture, conformity, and persuasion.

Construal

How you personally interpret and make sense of the world around you.

Theory

A broad set of ideas that explains why something happens and helps predict future events.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction based on a theory.

Representative Sample

A small group that accurately reflects the diversity of the larger population being studied.

Random Sample

A survey method where every single person in a target group has an equal chance of being picked.

Framing Effect

How the presentation or wording of information changes how people react to it.

Lab Research

Studies done in a controlled, indoor environment to eliminate distractions and outside influences.

Field Research

Studies done out in the real world where conditions can be unpredictable.

Correlational Research

Looking at whether two things are naturally related without altering anything yourself.

Spurious Correlation

When two things seem related, but their connection is actually caused by a hidden third factor.

Experimental Research

Studies where researchers actively change one variable to see if it directly causes a change in another.

Independent Variable

The specific factor that the experimenter manipulates or changes.

Dependent Variable

The outcome being measured to see if it changed because of the independent variable.

Control Group

The benchmark group in an experiment that does not receive the special treatment.

Random Assignment

Flipping a coin or using chance to decide which group a study participant ends up in.

Mundane Realism

How closely an experiment's setup resembles everyday life.

Experimental Realism

How deeply engaged and emotionally invested participants get during a study.

Deception

Misleading participants about the real purpose of a study to get natural reactions.

Demand Characteristics

Subtle clues in a study that tip off participants about what the experimenter wants them to do.

Internal Validity

How certain you are that the experiment's treatment (and nothing else) caused the results.

External Validity

How well the findings of a study apply to real-world settings outside the lab.

Statistical Inference

Using math to figure out if your study results are genuine or just a coincidence.

Replication

Repeating a study with a new group of people to confirm if the original findings hold up.

Self-Concept

Your overall picture and knowledge of who you are.

Schema

Mental shortcuts or frameworks for organizing information about the world.

Self-Schema

Mental shortcuts about your own personal traits that guide how you process information.

Social Comparison

Gauging your own traits and standing by comparing yourself to other people.

Looking-Glass Self

Forming your opinion of yourself based on how you think others see you.

Individualism

A mindset that values personal goals, personal freedom, and standing out over group harmony.

Independent Self

Viewing yourself as an autonomous individual who is separate from others.

Collectivism

A mindset that values group harmony, family, and community goals above personal desires.

Self-Esteem

Your general feelings of self-worth and value as a person.

Self-Efficacy

Your belief in your ability to succeed at a specific task.

Self-Serving Bias

Taking credit for successes while blaming failures on external factors.

False Consensus Effect

Overestimating how many other people agree with your views or share your bad habits.

False Uniqueness Effect

Underestimating how many other people share your positive traits or talents.

Unrealistic Optimism

Overly positive beliefs about your future that blind you to risks.

Defensive Pessimism

Preparing for the worst-case scenario as a productive way to handle anxiety and perform well.

Automatic Processing (System 1)

Fast, effortless, automatic thinking without conscious thought.

Controlled Processing (System 2)

Slow, deliberate, conscious, and effortful thinking.

Confirmation Bias

Paying attention only to information that agrees with your existing beliefs.

Belief Perseverance

Holding onto a belief even after the evidence supporting it has been completely debunked.

Heuristic

A mental shortcut used to make quick decisions or judgments.

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging the likelihood of something based on how well it fits a stereotype.

Availability Heuristic

Estimating how common something is based on how quickly memorable examples come to mind.

Attribution Theory

How we explain the reasons behind people's actions (blaming personality vs. circumstance).

Dispositional Attribution

Blaming a person's behavior on their internal personality or character traits.

Situational Attribution

Explaining a person's behavior based on their external situation or environment.

Misattribution

Incorrectly identifying the root cause of a feeling or behavior.

Spontaneous Trait Inference

Instantly judging someone's character the second you observe their behavior.

Fundamental Attribution Error

Overestimating a person's character traits and underestimating their situation when judging their actions.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Having an expectation that indirectly causes that very expectation to come true.

Behavioral Confirmation

Acting a certain way toward someone based on expectations, causing them to confirm your belief.

Attitude

A favorable or unfavorable evaluation of a person, object, or idea.

Affective Component

The emotional or feeling side of an attitude.

Behavioral Component

The action side of an attitude (how you intend to act).

Cognitive Component

The belief or factual thought side of an attitude.

Explicit Attitude

Attitudes you are consciously aware of and can easily share with others.

Implicit Attitude

Automatic, unconscious attitudes that influence actions without active realization.

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

A computer test that measures split-second reaction times to reveal hidden mental associations.

Self-Presentation Theory

Expressing opinions to make yourself look consistent and desirable to others.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

The uncomfortable tension felt when your beliefs and actions don't match.

Insufficient Justification Effect

Changing your mind internally to justify a behavior when there was no strong external reward for doing it.

Self-Perception Theory

Figuring out your own attitudes by watching your own past behavior when you aren't sure how you feel.

Overjustification Effect

Losing interest in a fun activity after getting paid or rewarded for doing it.

Natural Selection

The process where beneficial survival traits are passed down through generations.

Evolutionary Psychology

Studying how human behavior evolved over time due to survival and mating needs.

Sex

Biological categories based on physical anatomy and genetics.

Gender

The social roles, behaviors, and cultural expectations linked to masculine or feminine identity.

Culture

Shared traditions, beliefs, and behaviors passed down within a group over generations.

Norms

Unwritten rules for acceptable behavior in a social group.

Gender Role

A set of cultural expectations regarding how males or females should behave.

Epigenetics

How environmental factors turn genes on or off without altering actual DNA sequences.

Interaction

How the effect of one factor changes depending on the presence of another factor.

Conformity

Changing your behavior or beliefs to align with group pressure.

Acceptance

Conforming because you genuinely believe the group is correct.

Compliance

Going along with a group outwardly while quietly disagreeing inside.

Obedience

Following a direct order from an authority figure.

Informational Influence

Conforming because you look to others for correct information in an uncertain situation.

Normative Influence

Conforming simply to gain social approval or avoid being rejected by others.

Cohesion

The strength of closeness and connection felt within a group.

Psychological Reactance

Doing the opposite of what you are told to protect your sense of personal freedom.

Persuasion

The process of convincing someone to change their mind or behavior.

Elaboration Likelihood Model

A model showing the two pathways people use to process persuasive messages (deep thought vs. surface cues).

Central Route to Persuasion

Persuading people through solid facts, logic, and strong arguments.

Peripheral Route to Persuasion

Persuading people using quick, surface-level cues like attractiveness, humor, or fame.

Credibility

How trustworthy and expert a speaker seems to their audience.

Halo Effect

Assuming a person has good qualities overall just because they have one standout positive trait (like good looks).

Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon

Getting someone to agree to a large request by getting them to agree to a tiny request first.

Door-in-the-Face Technique

Asking for an huge, unreasonable favor first (so it gets rejected), then following up with a smaller, reasonable request.

Lowball Technique

Getting someone to agree to an attractive offer, then raising the cost before finalizing the deal.

Attitude Inoculation

Building up resistance to persuasion by exposing people to weak counterarguments beforehand.

Counterargument

An objection or opposing reason raised against a persuasive message.