PSY 361 - O'Leary CSULB | Exam I

Development

Relatively permanent patterns of growth & change in behavior, thinking, or emotions over time

Developmental theory

A set of rules or statements that describes, explains, & predicts various aspects of development

Maturation

A primarily biological unfolding of events involved in an organism changing gradually from a simple to a more complex level

Plasticity

The degree to which behavior, emotions, thoughts, or brain functions can be modified by experience

Sensitive period

A range of time when the development of the organism is most sensitive to environmental stimulation

Developmental cascade

A developmental pattern in which small environmental effects of child behaviors become magnified across time/age, leading to larger environmental effects or larger changes in child behavior

Resilience

Maintaining/exceeding typical development despite the presence of risk factors in the environment

Vulnerability

The extent to which biological/environmental factors create a higher than average risk of poor developmental outcomes

Classical conditioning

A learning process in which the CS (sound of bell) is paired with the US (sight of food) repeatedly until the CS alone elicits the response (salivation) originally elicited by the US; Pavlov & Watson

Operant conditioning

Learning process in which a particular behavior (baby's smile) is followed by a rewarding/reinforcing stimulus (adult talking to baby), resulting in an increase in the frequency of the behavior (baby's smile); Thornedike & Skinner

Observational learning

Learning by observing/imitating another person

Scheme

An organized way of thinking about or acting on the world

Stages of cognitive development

Distinct types of thinking marked by changes in the nature of the schemes & the organization of schemes into cognitive structures

Zone of proximal development

The gap between children's ability to solve a problem independently & their ability to solve it with the help of more capable partners

White matter tracts

Bundles of neural fibers that form connections between neurons in the brain

Functional MRI (fMRI)

A brain imaging technique that tracks blood flow in the brain to map areas that are activated by particular cognitive activities

Self-organizing principle

A principle of dynamic systems theory noting that changes in any component (or multiple components) of the system can lead to reorganization into a more complex system over time

Naturalistic observation

The recording of behavior in natural settings

Structured observation

An observation in which children's behavior is recorded in structured situations

Ethnographic methods

The recording of children's behavior while the researcher is a member of the group to which the child belongs

Norms

Data on how a large number of individuals perform on a given test

Reliability

The consistency of measurements across test occasions

Validity

The extent to which a test measures what it was intended to measure

Correlation coefficient

A measure of the extent to which 2 variables are related

Multiple regression

A statistical analysis in which the relationships between multiple independent variables & a dependent variable are measured

Independent variable

The variable that differs between the experimental & control group

Dependent variable

The variable that is being tested/measured in an experiment

Longitudinal study

A study in which one group of individuals is tested repeatedly over a fairly long period of time (such as several months/years)

Cross-sectional study

A study in which individuals of different ages are observed at the same point in time

Cohort effect

Variations in developmental outcomes observed between groups of children born in different times, places, or conditions

Race

A term referring to groups of people who have similarities & differences in biological traits (skin tone) that are regarded by society to be socially significant

Ethnicity

Shared cultural & social practices (religion, language, traditions) that distinguish one group of people from another

Socioeconomic status (SES)

An indicator of social status based on factors (family, income, education, occupation)

Continuity/discontinuity

Theories tend to fall on a continuum between an emphasis on continuous change, a mixture of continuous & discontinuous change, & discontinuous changes/stages

Bowlby's theory of attachment

Attachment in human beings is a complex system of behavior, involving both the child & caregiver, which evolved to maximize the survival of babies

Vygotsky's sociocultural theory

Biological, historical & cultural factors influence cognitive development. Learning takes place in social contexts, where more expert members of society interact with children

We operate in 4 ecological layers/levels

1. Microsystems

2. Mesosystems

3. Exo-systems

4. Macro - systems

Microsystems

Immediate environments with direct, daily interaction (family, school, peers, church)

Mesosystems

Connections & relationships between different microsystems (how family, school, work interact)

Exo-systems

Settings that indirectly affect an individual, even without direct involvement (parent's job, community services)

Macrosystems

Broader cultural, societal, & belief systems that shape all other levels (culture, laws, religion, values)

Dynamic systems theories

- Constant interplay of multiple factors

- Conceptualize development in terms of interacting influences that change continuously over time

- Self-organizing principle

Natal periods (sensitive period)

Prenatal, perinatal, postnatal

Prenatal

Before birth

Perinatal

Birth

Postnatal

After birth

Adverse childhood experiences

any experience that may have a negative impact on children's later health & development

Protective & compensatory experiences

Experiments/resources in the environment that prevent, mitigate, or remediate negative health & behavioral outcomes

Interdisciplinary approach

how brain changes relate to behavior & cognitive changes

Konrad Lorenz

Conducted an experiment where he hypothesized that if he was the first thing hatching baby geese saw, they would follow him believing he was the mother. This was proven true.

Gene

A particular segment of the DNA strand that provides instructions for producing proteins

Mitosis

A process in which a cell duplicates the DNA strand & divides into 2 cells

Meiosis

The division of reproductive cells into daughter cells containing only 1 strand of DNA

Gametes

The reproductive cells: sperm (males) & ovum (females)

Zygote

The fertilized ovum, containing the full complement of chromosomes from mother & father

Genotype

The particular combination of alleles present in an individual

Phenotype

The observable trait/disease shown by an individual, influenced in varying degrees by genotype & by environment

Alleles

Alternate forms of a gene; typically 1 from each parent

Homozygous

Inheriting 2 similar alleles, 1 from each parent

Heterozygous

Inheriting 2 different alleles from the 2 parents

Dominant

A term for a trait that is present in the genotype & expressed in the phenotype when there are 2 competing alleles

Recessive

A term for a trait that is expressed in the phenotype only when 2 copies of the same allele are present, & neither is a dominant allele

Carrier

A person who has a recessive allele for a trait but does not display that trait

Polygenic inheritance

Traits/disorders influenced by the combined effects of more than 1 gene

Gene expression

The extent to which a gene can perform its function (of regulation of other genes or production of proteins used in the body)

Down syndrome (Trisomy 21)

A condition in which an extra 21st chromosome is present in the genotype, leading to altered facial features, a low IQ, heart problems, & a shorter life span

Phenylketoronuria (PKU)

A genetic disorder that prevents the metabolization of phenylpyruvic acid, leading to intellectual disability unless the diet is strictly controlled

Heritability

An estimate of the amount of variability in a trait that is due to genetic variation

Developmental systems framework

An approach that views development as arising out of multiple factors that function together as a whole, including genes, brain development, behavior & environment

4 levels of analysis (developmental systems framework)

1. genetic activity

2. neural activity

3. behavior

4. environment

XX

Female

XY

Male

Behavioral genetics

a field in which scientists study genetic & environmental contributions to psychological & physical traits

Fragile X syndrome

There is a fragile sight on the X chromosome; causes larger foreheads, larger ears, space between eyes is specific

Klinefelter syndrome

- Most common sex chromosome error

- occurs in males with extra X chromosome

- can delay puberty & lead to infertility

- can be treated with hormone therapy if detected early enough

Twin design

A research design in which the contribution of genes & environment to variation in traits is teased by comparing identical & fraternal twins

Genome-wide association study

A method that studies the entire genome to find out which SNP's are significantly associated with a trait/disorder

Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)

A difference in a single nucleotide base

Gene-environment interplay

The continuous interplay of genes & environment to produce developmental change

Gene-environment correlation

The genetic variation among people that influences the environments to which they are exposed

Passive-gene environment correlation

Genetic influences on the environment that occur without the individual having to do anything

Evocative gene-environment correlation

Influences on the environment that occur when individuals evoke reactions from others based on their genetic predispositions

Active-gene environment correlation

Influences on the environment that occur when individuals seek out or create environments based on their genetic predispositions

Diathesis-stress model

An individual's genetic predisposition to a disorder combines with environmental stressors to produce symptoms of a psychological disorder

Epigenetics

The study of mechanisms by which chemicals attached to the genes regulate gene expression

Methylation

A complex biochemical process in which chemical compounds called methyl groups attach themselves to a gene & reduce or cut off the expression of the gene

Species-typical rearing environment

The environment that is present for most members of a particular species during development

Dialogic book-sharing

Practices in which parents & children have a conversation while reading a book aloud

Prenatal periods

Germinal period, embryonic period, fetal period

Germinal period

Development in the first 2 weeks after fertilization

Embryonic period

Development from the 3rd through the 8th week

Fetal period

Development from the 9th week until birth

Implantation

The process by which the blastocyst becomes attached to the uterus

Monozygotic twins

twins formed from the division of a single zygote into 2 genetically identical organisms

Dizygotic twins

Twins formed from the fertilization of 2 separate oba by 2 separate sperm cells

Neural tube defect

Defect resulting from failure of the neural tube to close

Neurons

Cells in the brain that send & receive information

Neurogenesis

The formation of new neurons within the brain

Glial cells

Cells in the brain that provide neurons with nutrients & remove waste, help guide them during migration, & insulate them with myelin

Neuronal migration

The migration of neurons from the place where they are formed to their final locations in the brain