History test 3

Positivism

Appropriate data = observations that are public domain.

Logical positivism

Abstract theoretical terms may be allowed if they can be tied to empirical observation. (theories explain what is observed)

What did logical positivism do for behaviorism?

Allowed for more complex forms of behaviorism. (Operant Conditioning)

Operationalism

All abstract scientific terms can be defined and measured.

Neobehaviorism

Behaviorism with an emphasis on logical positivism

Components of neobehaviorism

• Things need to be operationally defined

• Animal research

  • Easier to control variables

  • Animals only differ slightly

• Learning processes are most important to adjusting to changing environment.

Purposive Behaviorism

The study of behavior that is directed toward a goal and terminated after the goal is achieved. (active processing)

Edward Tolman main branch

Neobehaviorism - Purposive behavior

Edward Tolman main contribution

Cognitive maps + Intervening variables

Intervening variables (Tolman)

Theoretical factor that acts as a mechanism of how an independent variable causes a dependent variable.

Intervening variables in learning (Tolman)

Environmental experiences give rise to cognitive events which then cause behavior.

Purpose + cognition (cognitive maps) act as intervening variables that can be used to define + EXPLAIN behavior.

Cognitive maps (Tolman)

Mental representations of what individuals use to understand physical spaces or abstract concepts

Cognitive maps - Hypothesis (Tolman)

Trial-and-error / exploratory expectations when learning

Cognitive maps - Vicarious trial and error (Tolman)

Apparent pondering of behavioral choices in a learning situation

Cognitive maps - Expectancy (Tolman)

Hypothesis that has been consistently confirmed

Cognitive maps - Belief (Tolman)

Deeply engrained, generalized expectation from experience

Edward Tolman thoughts on learning

Learning occurs constantly. Whether an organism performs the learned behavior is based on whether it is motivated to do so. Learning that is not translated into behavior is latent learning.

Performance (Tolman)

The translation of learning into behavior.

Latent learning (Tolman)

Learning not translating into behavior.

Clark Hull method contribution

Hypothetico-Deductive theory

Hypothetico-Deductive theory (Hull)

Method for creating experimentally testable hypotheses. This started with a set of basic assumptions about the topic, from which specific theorems about behavior were logically deduced and then tested experimentally. If an experimental test failed, the postulate or equation was revised or discarded.

Attempt to create an overarching behavior theory for everything.

Importance of Hypothetico-Deductive theory (Hull)

Considered to be the only way for psychology to be seen as a science. Encouraged researchers to think of objective ways to explore psychology.

Clark Hull theory

Drive-reduction theory of reinforcement

Drive-reduction theory of reinforcement (Hull)

Biological need created drive. This can serve as an event between a stimulus and responce.

Reinforcement (Hull)

The reduction of a drive

Habit strength (Hull)

Degree to which a behavior has become automatic / driven by the environment rather than conscious decision-making.

# of reinforced pairings between an environmental situation and a response.

Increases if the response leads to drive reduction.

Reaction potential (Hull)

Probability of a learned responce

B.F. Skinner approach

Inductive approach (Bacon + Socrates). Insisted all terms need to be irrationally defined b/c the data is the most important thing. (Antitheoretical)

Functional analysis of behavior (Skinner)

Analysis of relationship btw enviro and behavior. Don’t need to study mental events. Consciousness does not exist. Radical behavrism.

B.F. Skinner branch

Radical behaviorism

Radical behaviorism (Skinner)

Refuse any causal role of mental events in human behavior. (If can’t see or measure it, it doesn’t exist)

B.F. Skinner influenced by:

Thorndike’s law of effects

B.F. Skinner main contribution

Operant behavior

Operant behavior (Skinner)

Behavior influenced by consequences bc the behavior produces consequences. (reinforcement + punishment)

Reinforcement (Skinner)

Consequence of a behavior increases the rate of probability of that behavior. Can be identified always by its consequence on the behavior.

Positive behavior control (Skinner)

Adding wither a reinforcer or a punisher

Punisher (Skinner)

stimulus that decreases the probability of the spec. responce.

Skinner’s view on undesirable behavior

We need to ignore it rather than reinforce it. leads to extinction.

Behavior therapy

Increase the frequency of desired behavior + decreases the frequency of problem behavior. Assumed that people learn abnormal behavior similarly to normal behavior, so you can remove reinforcers to strengthen wanted behaviors.

Behaviorism in education

Skinner criticized by saying that punishment used to force children to behave.

Behaviorism in business

Motivation to get more sales to earn more money.

How gestalt psychology started

Criticism of Wundt’s elementalism. Introspection essential b/c can’t reduce elements of behavior w/o losing meaning.

“Gestalt”

Whole / wholeness (meaningful units)

Molar approach

Conc on phenomenal experience. Mental experience of observation w/o analysis.

Immanuel Kant in Gestalt Psych

Consciousness can’t be reduced to sensory stimulation + conscious experience is different from simply the elements that compose it.

Ernst Mach in Gestalt Psych

Perception of space and time are independent from what composes them. (People’s perceptions of space and time are different that others’)

Christian von Ehrenfels in Gestalt Psych

Form (meaning) emerges from elements of sensation

William James in Gestalt psych

Stream of consciousness (mind not isolated mental elements)

Act psychologists

Brentano + Stumph

Act Psychology (Brentano + Stumpf) in gestalt psych

Processes “acts” of perceiving, sensing, or problem solving

Importance of Stumpf

All 3 founders of gestalt psych studied under Stumpf

Founders of Gestalt Psychology

Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Kohler

Max Wertheimer main contribution

Phi Phenomenon

Phi Phenomenon (Wertheimer)

Perception of movement when something is stationary. Proposed that perceptions are different than sensations.

Kurt Koffka in Gestalt Psych

“spokesman” of Gestalt psych. Wrote books + did presentations. Criticized behaviorism.

Wolfgang Kohler in gestalt psych

Researcher of gestalt psych + aspects of learning.

Field theory (gestalt)

Brain contains electrochemical fields that give sensations their meaning. Sensory data modifies the electrochemical fields + our experience results from the change of the electrochemical field.

As you take in sensory information, the data is filtered through concepts of how you have thought of things. Sensory data expands the concept of a thing in your mind, but that sensory data is also filtered by the concept.

Psychological Isomorphism (gestalt)

Brain activity is based in the information it receives.

Top-Down Analysis (gestalt)

Your perception of something is more determined by the concept in your mind than the sensory stimuli.

Law of Prägnanz (gestalt)

Cognitive experiences will be as simple as they can be. “As good as conditions allow” Mind will organize complex information into the simplest form possible.

Perceptual Consistency (gestalt)

Brain automatically perceives objects as the same, even if the actual simulation is very different. (Upside down chair).

Figure-ground (gestalt)

Perceptual field can be divided into two parts. Which can be switched based on attention

Figure (Gestalt)

Clear + Unified + object of attention

Ground (gestalt)

Diffuse + consists of all else.

Continuity (gestalt)

Stimuli that may be continuous will be perceived as a whole. (dots in a line = line)

Proximity (Gestalt)

Close stimuli will be grouped together (dots grouped in two spaces = 2 rectangles)

Inclusiveness (gestalt)

If more than one figure, more likely to see figure w/ the most stimuli.

Similarity (gestalt)

Alike stimuli will be grouped together (dots of 2 colors in 1 rectangle = 2 rectangles)

Closure (gestalt)

Incomplete figures can be assumed + perceived as complete (also works in memory + why we often have inaccurate memories).

Learning in gestalt psychology

Cognitive trial and error. (see solutions)

Insightful learning (gestalt)

Occurs if organism given a problem + things necessary to solve the problem.

Characteristics of insightful learning

Transition from problem to solution perceived as sudden.

Insightful solution = smooth + no errors

Insightful learning = retained long + easily applied to other problems

Transposition (gestalt)

Organisms learns relationships, general principles. Not specific memorizations.

Generalizable.

Application of gestalt theory to education.

Productive thinking

Productive thinking (gestalt)

Motivated to learn + problem solve b/c it’s satisfying (Intrinsic). “what principles / patterns can I use to solve this category of problems.

Intrinsic reinforcement

Personal satisfaction

Extrinsic Reinforcement

Someone / something else reinforcing behavior.

Frederick “Fritz” Perls main contribution

Applied Gestalt theory to therapy

Fritz Perls Therapy

Concentrated on here and now (not psychoanalytic). Taught how to recognize needs + that how their drives may influence their behavior. Tried to break up the whole + put them together to make a more cohesive whole.