SHS 300 (Anatomy and Physiology of the Vocal Mechanism)

Superior / Rostral / Cranial

Towards the head

Inferior / Caudal

Towards the feet

Proximal (only applies to limbs)

Toward the body / trunk

Distal (only applies to limbs)

Away from the body / trunk

Anterior / Ventral (not in the brain)

Towards the front / belly

Posterior / Dorsal (not in the brain)

Towards the back

Dorsal / Superior (in the brain)

Towards the top

Posterior / Caudal (in the brain)

Towards the back

Ventral / Inferior (in the brain)

Towards the bottom

Anterior / Rostral (in the brain)

Towards the front

Sagittal Plane

Cuts the body in half by separating the right and left halves

• Midsagittal plane: a vertical cut right down the center

• Parasagittal plane: a vertical cut that is not down the middle

Coronal / Frontal Plane

Cuts the body by separating the front and back halves 

Transverse / Axial / Horizontal Plane

Cuts the body in half by separating the trunk and legs (or, in general, the upper and lower parts) 

About how many cells are in the human body?

100 trillion

What is the function of ribosomes?

To make proteins by translating genetic instructions

What is the function of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)?

To synthesize, fold, and process proteins for export outside the cell or incorporation into cell membranes

What is the function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)?

To synthesizes lipids, processes toxins, and store calcium ions

What is the function of the Golgi apparatus?

To modify, store, sort, and package proteins and lipids for storage or transport out of the cell

What is the function of lysosomes?

To act as the digestive and recycling centers to break down waste

What is the function of the mitochondria?

To produce chemical energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) to power the cell's biochemical activities

What are the four types of tissues?

1. Epithelial 

2. Connective 

3. Muscular

4. Nervous

In what 3 ways are epithelial tissue cells classified?

1. Shape

2. Arrangement

3. Function

What are some of the places epithelial cells can be found?

1. The external surface of the body (skin)

2. Lining internal body cavities (endothelial; mesothelial)

What is this type of epithelial cell?

• It lines the vocal folds and blood vessels

• It is flat and usually protective

Shape: Squamous

What is this type of epithelial cell?

• Tall and rectangular

• Lines the stomach and intestines

Shape: Columnar

What is this type of epithelial cell?

• Cube-shaped

• Lines the surface of ovaries and nephrons

  • Nephrons are the tiny microscopic structures inside your kidneys that filter your blood and make urine

Shape: Cuboidal

Where can ciliated epithelial cells be found?

•  Where extra protection is necessary 

• Lining of the nasal cavity, larynx, and trachea

What arrangement of epithelium lines the digestive tract?

Simple epithelial tissue

What arrangement of epithelium makes up the skin and also lines the mouth cavity and vocal folds?

Stratified

What arrangement of epithelium lines the respiratory tract?

Pseudostratified

What are the different functions of epithelium?

• Protective: 

  • Protect underlying tissue

• Secretory: 

  • Secrete specific substances (glands)

• Sensory: 

  • Specialized cells in the skin, eyes, ears, nose, and tongue

  • Involved in processing sensory information

• Absorptive: 

  • Absorb nutrients in the digestive system

What are connective tissues?

Tissues that connect or bind structures together and support the body

What are the 3 types of proper connective tissue?

• Ligaments: bind or hold structures; some elasticity

  • Connect bone to bone, bone to cartilage, cartilage to cartilage

• Tendons: tough, non-elastic cords

  • Attach muscle to bone, muscle

• Aponeurosis: large, broad tendinous sheets

  • Encase softer structures, e.g., abdominal aponeurosis

What are the 2 types of supportive connective tissue?

• Cartilage: stronger than previous forms of connective tissue, but flexible and capable of growth

  • Hyaline: has lots of collagenous fibers, ossifies with age

    • Ossification: the biological process of forming new bone tissue

  • Elastic: flexible/rubbery due to elastic fibers

    • Ear cartilage doesn’t stop growing even throughout old age. This is why some old people have very big ears

  • Fibrous: dense network of collagenous fibers and cartilage cells, associated with joints

• Bone: rigid, very strong, hardest of connective tissue

  • Compact: outer portion

  • Spongy: inner portion

Where can you find smooth muscle tissue?

• The muscles of the gastrointestinal tract 

• The stomach and intestines (visceral organs) 

• Blood vessels 

• Urinary bladder

What are 3 characteristics of smooth muscle tissue?

• Non-striated

• Innervated by the autonomic nervous system

• Involuntary contraction

What are 4 characteristics of cardiac muscle tissue?

• Striated

• Innervated by the autonomic nervous system

• Involuntary contraction

• Designed for endurance

What are 4 characteristics of skeletal muscle tissue?

• Striated

• Innervated by the somatic division of the peripheral nervous system

• Voluntary contraction

• Usually have a single origin and insertion

  • Origin: the fixed, stationary attachment site

  • Insertion: its movable attachment site that gets pulled toward the origin during contraction

What is the predominant type of muscle involved in speech and swallowing?

The Thyrohyoid muscle

• A small, flat skeletal muscle in the front of the neck that helps lower the hyoid bone and raise the voice box during swallowing and speaking

What is the smallest functional unit of muscle tissue?

Muscle fiber / Muscle cell

What is a group of muscle fibers called?

Fascicle

Describe the process of muscle contraction

The muscle shortens due to the movement of filaments within myofibrils, brought about by a nerve impulse + Ca2+ trigger

What is a motor unit?

A nerve and its associated muscle fibers

What is Isotonic Concentric contraction?

Muscle shortening + tension

What is Isotonic Eccentric contraction?

Muscle lengthening + tension

What is Isometric contraction?

No movement + tension

What are the two types of skeletal muscle fibers?

1. Slow twitch

   1. Better for endurance

2. Fast twitch

   1. Better for intense, fast bursts

What is the arrangement of these cells? Where are they likely located?

• Arrangement: Pseudostratified columnar ciliated

• Location: The Goblet cell produces mucus, so it’s likely that this tissue is in the respiratory system (more specifically, the trachea). Cilia also provide extra protection.

What is the arrangement of these cells?

Stratified squamous

What is the arrangement of these cells?

Simple cuboidal

What is the arrangement of these cells?

Simple columnar

What are the two main divisions of the nervous system?

• Central Nervous System (CNS)

  • brain and spinal cord

• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

  • cranial nerves and spinal nerves

What subsystems compose the PNS?

• The Autonomic Nervous System

  • Controls heart muscles, smooth muscles, and glands

  • Further composed of the Parasympathetic Division and the Sympathetic Division

• The Somatic Nervous System

  • Controls voluntary skeletal muscles

What is the Parasympathetic Division responsible for?

“Rest and digest” functions

What is the Sympathetic Division responsible for?

“Active and alert” / “Fight or flight” responses

What are the 3 main functions of the nervous system?

1. Gather Sensory Information

2. Synthesize Information

3. Respond to Stimuli

What is white matter?

Myelinated axons

What is gray matter?

Clusters of neuron cell bodies (soma)

What is a tract?

A bundle of axons within the CNS

What are nuclei?

Clusters of cell bodies within the CNS

What are nerves?

Bundles of axons within the PNS

What is the difference between a tract and a nerve?

They both are clusters of axons, but tracts exist in the CNS, while nerves exist in the PNS

What is the difference between nuclei and ganglia?

They both are clusters of cell bodies, but nuclei exist in the CNS, while ganglia exist in the PNS

What are ganglia?

Clusters of cell bodies within the PNS

What does the term “efferent” describe?

Motor output from the CNS to the PNS

What does the term “afferent” describe?

Sensory input from the PNS to the CNS

What is the definition of a neuron?

“A neuron is a specialized signaling cell in the nervous system that transmits electrochemical signals to coordinate all actions, thoughts, and feelings throughout the body.”

What do glial cells do?

Glial cells support neurons

What are the 3 types of macroglia?

1. Oligodendrocyte 

2. Schwann Cell 

3. Astrocyte

What do Oligodendrocytes & Schwann Cells do?

Produce myelin

What is the only difference between Oligodendrocytes & Schwann Cells?

They have the exact same function, just different names if found in CNS vs. PNS

• Oligodendrocyte: CNS

• Schwann Cell: PNS

What are the 5 functions of astrocytes?

1. Scaffolding: neuronal migration (ie. glue) 

2. Neuronal survival 

3. Synaptic neurotransmitter cleanup 

4. Formation of the blood-brain barrier 

5. Maintenance of neuronal homeostasis 

   • Extracellular fluid 

   • Energy 

What are the functions of microglia?

• They’re considered the “immune cells” of the CNS

  • Immune response to injury 

  • Remove debris 

• Neuronal support 

  • Programmed cell death 

• Homeostasis 

• Disease processes 

  • Inflammation and neurodegeneration 

True or false: “Neurons are only found within the CNS.”

False. Neurons are also found within the PNS (for example, on muscles)

What is the typical “receiver” limb of the neuron?

The dendrite

What is the typical “sender” limb of the neuron?

The axon

What is the axon terminal/button?

The small, swollen end of a nerve fiber that passes signals to other cells

How does an action potential occur?

Depolarization (cell becomes positive) due to an influx of Na+

What element causes repolarization?

An outflux of K+ causes repolarization (the cell becomes negative)

What is the neuromuscular junction?

• Synapse in the PNS

• Axonal terminal connecting to muscle tissue

• Release of neurotransmitter Acetylcholine (Ach)

• Action potential = muscle contraction

The brain is composed of 3 parts. What are they?

1. Cerebrum

2. Cerebellum

3. Brainstem

   1. Midbrain

   2. Pons

   3. Medulla

What is a gyRus?

A Ridge in the cerebrum.

What is a sulcus?

A fissure in the cerebrum

What divides the brain into two halves?

The Longitudinal Fissure

What connects the two hemispheres of the brain?

The Corpus Callosum

What are the 4 lobes of the brain?

1. Frontal Lobe 

2. Parietal Lobe 

3. Temporal Lobe 

4. Occipital Lobe

What does the precentral gyrus house?

The primary motor cortex (M1), which issues commands to perform contralateral voluntary movement

• organized by a motor homunculus

What does the premotor cortex house?

The Premotor (PMA) & supplementary motor areas (SMA), which are responsible for planning movement

What does the inferior frontal gyrus house?

Broca’s area, which is responsible for language expression

• Coordinates muscles in the mouth, tongue, and larynx for speech production 

• Helps process grammar and syntax

• Assists with processing the meaning of words and complex sentence structures

• Involved in hand movements, gesticulation, and understanding the actions of others

What is Broca’s Aphasia like?

Broca’s Aphasia results in slow, halting speech with missing grammatical words, even though the person usually understands what others are saying

What is the prefrontal cortex responsible for?

• Executive functions

• Social rules

• Higher-level thinking

• Personality and emotional regulation

• Decision-making

• Impulse control

• Working memory

• Planning and focus

What does the central sulcus / fissure (c) separate?

• The frontal lobe and the parietal lobe

• The primary motor cortex (d) and the primary somatosensory cortex (e)

What does the postcentral gyrus house?

The primary somatosensory area (S1), which responds to touch and pain stimuli from contralateral sides of the body

• organized by a sensory homunculus

What does the posterior parietal cortex (PPC) house?

• Somatosensory association cortex

• Angular gyrus

• Supramarginal gyrus

What is the angular gyrus (g) responsible for?

• Language processing

• Spatial cognition

• Comprehension of metaphors

• Math and calculations

• Helping you understand where you are in space and tell right from left

• Helping you understand that other people have thoughts, beliefs, and feelings different from your own (Theory of Mind)

What is the supramarginal gyrus (f) responsible for?

• Understanding word meaning

• Processes language sounds

• Following verbal instructions

• Interpreting touch

• Controlling empathy

• Recognizing body posture and gestures

Where is the superior gyrus and what does it house?

It is in the temporal lobe and it houses the primary auditory cortex and Wernicke’s area

What is Wernicke’s Area (h) responsible for?

• Comprehending spoken and written language

• Supporting the retrieval of the phonemes needed for word retrieval, reading aloud, and repeating speech

• Turning visual letters and auditory sounds into clear, understandable concepts

What is Wernicke’s Aphasia like?

Wernicke’s Aphasia results in fluent speech with normal rhythm, but sentences lack meaning, often containing made-up words or senseless "word salad," and they struggle to understand other people

What is the primary auditory cortex (i) responsible for?

• Receiving and analyzing basic sound information from the ears via the thalamus

• Identifying elemental features of a sound, such as its frequency and intensity

• Contains a tonotopic map where neighboring neurons respond to neighboring sound frequencies, mirroring the layout of the cochlea in the inner ear

• Determining where a sound is coming from in space

• Processes temporal sequences, basic speech phonemes, and elementary musical notes before sending them to higher-order association areas