AP European History Chapter 16: The Scientific Revolution, Enlightenment, and Political Change

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering the key individuals, concepts, publications, and events of the Scientific Revolution, the Enlightenment, Enlightened Absolutism, and subsequent political changes from AP European History Chapter 16.

Scientific Revolution (c. 1540–1700)

Intellectual transformation in which Europeans increasingly used observation, experimentation, mathematics, and reason to understand the natural world.

Geocentrism

Traditional belief that Earth was stationary at the center of the universe, supported by the astronomical model of Ptolemy and the natural philosophy of Aristotle.

Aristotle

Ancient Greek philosopher whose ideas influenced medieval science; he believed Earth was at the center of the universe and heavenly bodies moved in perfect circles.

Ptolemy

Ancient astronomer who developed a geocentric mathematical model of the universe.

Scholasticism

Medieval intellectual method that combined Christian theology with ancient Greek philosophy.

Nicolaus Copernicus

Polish astronomer who proposed a heliocentric model in which Earth and other planets revolve around the sun.

Heliocentrism

Astronomical model placing the sun near the center of the planetary system.

On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543)

Copernicus's work proposing heliocentrism.

Tycho Brahe

Danish astronomer who collected highly accurate observations of planetary positions that later helped Kepler develop his laws of planetary motion.

Johannes Kepler

German astronomer who discovered that planets travel in elliptical rather than circular orbits.

Galileo Galilei

Italian scientist who used telescopic observations to challenge traditional astronomy and strengthen the case for heliocentrism.

Galileo's Trial (1633)

Proceedings in which the Roman Inquisition condemned Galileo's defense of heliocentrism, forcing him to recant and placing him under house arrest.

Isaac Newton

English scientist who formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation.

Principia Mathematica (1687)

Newton's work explaining motion and gravity through mathematical laws.

Universal Gravitation

Newton's principle that all objects attract one another through gravity.

Francis Bacon

English philosopher who emphasized empiricism, observation, experimentation, and inductive reasoning.

Empiricism

Belief that knowledge develops through sensory experience and observation.

Inductive Reasoning

Developing general conclusions from specific observations.

René Descartes

French philosopher who emphasized rationalism, systematic doubt, and deductive reasoning.

Rationalism

Emphasis on reason and logical thought as sources of knowledge.

Deductive Reasoning

Applying general principles to reach specific conclusions.

Scientific Method

Systematic process of developing and testing explanations through observation, experimentation, and analysis.

Enlightenment

Eighteenth-century intellectual movement emphasizing reason, progress, education, individual rights, and criticism of traditional authority.

Philosophes

Enlightenment intellectuals who promoted rational inquiry and criticized political, religious, and social institutions.

Natural Law

Universal principles believed to govern nature and, according to many Enlightenment thinkers, human society.

Progress

Enlightenment belief that society could improve through reason, education, and reform.

John Locke

English philosopher who argued that individuals possess natural rights and that legitimate government depends on consent.

Natural Rights

Rights individuals possess independently of government, identified by Locke as life, liberty, and property.

Two Treatises of Government (1689/1690)

Locke's work defending natural rights, limited government, and resistance to tyranny.

Tabula Rasa

Locke's concept that the mind begins without innate ideas and develops knowledge through experience.

Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)

Locke's work arguing that knowledge comes from experience.

Montesquieu

French philosopher who advocated separating political powers to prevent tyranny.

The Spirit of the Laws (1748)

Montesquieu's work examining political institutions and the separation of powers.

Separation of Powers

Division of government authority among legislative, executive, and judicial functions to prevent concentrated power.

Voltaire

French Enlightenment writer who criticized religious intolerance, censorship, and abuses of authority.

Religious Toleration

Principle that individuals should be free from persecution because of their religious beliefs.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Philosopher who emphasized popular sovereignty and the general will.

The Social Contract (1762)

Rousseau's work arguing that legitimate political authority rests on the sovereignty of the people.

Popular Sovereignty

Principle that ultimate political authority belongs to the people.

General Will

Rousseau's concept of the common good that should guide legitimate laws.

Denis Diderot

French philosopher who edited the Encyclopédie.

Encyclopédie

Enlightenment publication beginning in 1751 that collected and circulated knowledge about science, philosophy, technology, and practical trades.

Deism

Belief in a creator who established the universe and its natural laws but does not routinely intervene through miracles.

Religious Skepticism

Questioning traditional religious claims and demanding rational justification.

Secularism

Reduced control of religious institutions over political and intellectual life.

Calas Affair

Wrongful conviction of Protestant Jean Calas publicized by Voltaire to criticize religious persecution.

Treatise on Tolerance (1763)

Voltaire's work advocating religious toleration.

Salons

Intellectual gatherings, often hosted by educated women, where Enlightenment ideas were discussed.

Madame Geoffrin

Influential French salon hostess who brought together Enlightenment intellectuals.

Coffeehouses

Public gathering places where Europeans discussed news, politics, and intellectual developments.

Public Sphere

Space in which individuals discuss and criticize matters of public concern outside direct government control.

Émilie du Châtelet

French mathematician and physicist who translated and explained Newton's Principia.

Mary Wollstonecraft

English writer who argued that women deserved greater educational and social equality.

A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792)

Wollstonecraft's work challenging women's exclusion from Enlightenment ideals of reason and equality.

Reading Revolution

Eighteenth-century expansion of reading habits, literacy, and access to printed materials.

Intensive Reading

Repeated reading of a relatively small number of texts, often religious works.

Extensive Reading

Reading many different publications, including newspapers, novels, and philosophical works.

Print Culture

Circulation of books, newspapers, journals, and pamphlets that spread Enlightenment ideas.

Censorship

Government or religious restrictions on publications and intellectual expression.

Cesare Beccaria

Italian Enlightenment thinker who criticized torture, arbitrary punishment, and the death penalty.

On Crimes and Punishments (1764)

Beccaria's work arguing that punishments should be proportionate and designed to discourage crime.

Adam Smith

Scottish economist who criticized mercantilism and emphasized competition, specialization, and market exchange.

The Wealth of Nations (1776)

Smith's work examining markets, productivity, and economic development.

Laissez-Faire

Economic principle favoring limited government interference in markets.

Division of Labor

Specialization of work into separate tasks to increase productivity.

Enlightened Absolutism

System in which absolute monarchs adopted selected Enlightenment-inspired reforms while retaining political authority; also known as enlightened despotism.

Reform From Above

Political and social changes imposed by rulers rather than established through popular participation.

Frederick II (Frederick the Great)

King of Prussia from 1740 to 1786 who promoted religious toleration, education, legal reform, and efficient administration while preserving absolute monarchy, Junker privileges, and serfdom.

Junkers

Powerful Prussian landowning nobility who dominated the military and held important government positions.

Catherine II (Catherine the Great)

Russian empress from 1762 to 1796 who admired Enlightenment thinkers but preserved serfdom and strengthened noble privileges.

Nakaz (1767)

Catherine the Great's Enlightenment-inspired instructions for legal reform.

Legislative Commission

Assembly established by Catherine the Great to discuss legal reform, which failed to produce a comprehensive new legal code.

Pugachev's Rebellion (1773–1775)

Major Russian uprising that reinforced Catherine the Great's reliance on the nobility.

Charter to the Nobility (1785)

Catherine the Great's measure confirming and expanding the privileges of Russian nobles.

Joseph II

Habsburg ruler who pursued extensive reforms involving religion, serfdom, law, and administration, provoking opposition from nobles, religious authorities, and regional groups.

Patent of Toleration (1781)

Joseph II's measure expanding religious freedom for certain religious minorities.

Divine Right of Kings

Belief that monarchs receive their authority from God rather than from their subjects.

Government by Consent

Principle that legitimate political authority depends on the agreement of the governed.

Constitutional Government

Government whose powers are limited and structured by fundamental laws.

Political Legitimacy

Justification for a government's right to exercise political authority.

Social Contract

Theory that political authority arises through an agreement among individuals.

Thomas Hobbes

English philosopher who viewed human nature as competitive and self-interested, arguing that strong sovereign authority was necessary to prevent disorder and maintain peace.

Leviathan (1651)

Hobbes's work defending powerful government as necessary for security and political stability.

American Revolution (1775–1783)

Colonial independence movement influenced by Enlightenment arguments about natural rights and government by consent.

Declaration of Independence (1776)

Document asserting unalienable rights and justifying independence through the principle of government by consent.

Thomas Jefferson

Principal author of the Declaration of Independence, which reflected Enlightenment ideas about natural rights.

United States Constitution (1787)

Document establishing a constitutional system incorporating separation of powers and checks on government authority.

French Revolution (Beginning in 1789)

Political revolution that challenged absolute monarchy and inherited privileges, influenced partly by Enlightenment ideas.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789)

French revolutionary declaration asserting liberty, equality of rights, and national sovereignty.

Central Contradiction of the Enlightenment

The paradox where Enlightenment thinkers promoted liberty and equality while many European societies continued to maintain slavery, gender inequality, inherited privilege, and absolute monarchy.