Alexander the Great: Life, Campaigns, and Legacy

Chronological vocabulary and concept flashcards detailing the life, campaigns, administrative policies, and legacy of Alexander the Great based on accounts by Plutarch and Arrian.

Olympias

Princess of Epirus, wife of Philip II, and mother of Alexander. According to legend, she was descended from Achilles. Before Alexander's birth, she dreamed a thunderbolt struck her womb, and a snake was later seen lying next to her.

Philip II

King of Macedonia and father of Alexander. Legend traced his ancestry to Heracles. He dreamed of sealing Olympias' womb with a lion seal and was directed by the Delphic oracle to honor Ammon above all gods.

Temple of Artemis at Ephesus

The famous temple that burned down on the exact day Alexander was born in Pella in July 356 BCE.

Lysippos

The only sculptor authorized to craft portraits of Alexander, accurately capturing his fair skin, slight head tilt to the left, and melting eyes.

Leonidas

A relative of Olympias who served as Alexander's strict, frugal boyhood tutor; Alexander later sent him a huge shipment of incense from Gaza so he would not be stingy to the gods.

Lysimachus

Alexander's boyhood tutor who affectionately referred to himself as Phoenix, Philip as Peleus, and Alexander as Achilles; Alexander later risked his life to rescue him during a night raid at Tyre.

Bucephalus

Alexander's prized warhorse, bought for 13 talents, which no one could ride until Alexander realized the horse was afraid of its own shadow, turned him toward the sun, and mounted him.

Aristotle

Renowned philosopher hired by Philip II to tutor Alexander at Mieza in ethics, politics, medicine, and philosophy; Alexander kept Aristotle's edition of Homer's Iliad under his pillow alongside a dagger.

Battle of Chaeronea (338 BCE)

The engagement where 18-year-old Alexander led the decisive cavalry charge against the elite Theban Sacred Band, establishing his reputation as an accomplished field commander before ascending the throne.

Pixodarus Affair

A diplomatic dispute in which Alexander secretly offered to marry the daughter of Pixodarus, satrap of Caria; Philip was furious at the initiative and exiled Alexander's close companions Ptolemy, Harpalus, Nearchus, and Erigyius.

Pausanias

A young Macedonian nobleman who had been grievously insulted by Attalus and assassinated King Philip II during a royal wedding festival in 336 BCE.

Destruction of Thebes (335 BCE)

Alexander's brutal sack and razing of rebelling Thebes to set a terrifying example for Greece; roughly 6,000 Thebans were killed, 30,000 enslaved, and only priests, Macedonian sympathizers, and the descendants of Pindar were spared.

Timoclea

A noble Theban woman who pushed a marauding soldier down a well after he assaulted her; Alexander admired her fearless spirit and granted her and her children unconditional freedom.

League of Corinth

The confederation of Greek city-states assembled at the Isthmus of Corinth that formally appointed Alexander general supreme (hegemon) for the pan-Hellenic war of revenge against Persia.

Diogenes

Cynic philosopher living in Corinth who, when visited by Alexander and offered any gift, requested that the king step aside from blocking the sunlight.

Battle of the Granicus (May 334 BCE)

Alexander's first major victory in Asia against Persian satraps; he crossed the river against Parmenio's advice, was saved in close combat by Cleitus the Black, and dedicated 300 captured suits of Persian armor at Athens.

Cleitus the Black

Senior Macedonian cavalry officer who severed the arm of Spithridates at the Granicus to save Alexander's life; he was later killed by a drunken Alexander during a heated dispute at Maracanda in 328 BCE.

Ada, Queen of Caria

Deposed Carian ruler who surrendered the fortress of Alinda to Alexander, was restored to her satrapy, and formally adopted Alexander as her son.

Gordian Knot

An intricate cornel-bark knot securing an ancient wagon at Gordium; tradition stated that whoever unfastened it would rule Asia. Alexander fulfilled the prophecy either by slashing it with his sword or pulling out the wagon linchpin.

Battle of Issus (November 333 BCE)

Alexander's first direct confrontation with Darius III on a narrow coastal plain along the River Pinarus; Alexander sustained a thigh wound, Darius fled leaving his chariot, bow, and cloak, and the Persian royal family was captured.

Siege of Tyre (332 BCE)

A seven-month siege of a heavily fortified island city with 150-foot walls; Alexander constructed a massive stone mole from the mainland, mobilized 200 allied Phoenician and Cypriot ships, killed 8,000 defenders, and enslaved 30,000 inhabitants.

Siege of Gaza (autumn 332 BCE)

A difficult siege of a high-mounded fortress garrisoned by Batis; Alexander was struck through the shoulder by a catapult bolt, constructed enormous earthen ramps and mines, and enslaved the surviving population.

Alexandria

The celebrated Greek city founded by Alexander in Egypt in 331 BCE; according to Plutarch, its ideal coastal location was suggested to Alexander in a dream by Homer, and its perimeter was laid out using barley meal.

Oracle of Ammon at Siwah

An isolated oasis shrine in the Libyan desert visited by Alexander in 331 BCE, where the chief priest addressed him as the son of Ammon (Zeus), deeply reinforcing Alexander's belief in his divine origin.

Pothos

An intense, uncontrollable yearning or longing that drove Alexander to undertake extraordinary feats, including visiting Siwah, capturing Aornus, and pressing into unknown lands.

Battle of Gaugamela (1 October 331 BCE)

The decisive clash in Mesopotamia where Alexander advanced obliquely, led a wedge formation directly into a gap in Darius III's center, routed the Persian forces, and won the title of King of Asia.

Mazaeus

Persian commander who led the cavalry against Parmenio at Gaugamela and subsequently surrendered Babylon; Alexander rewarded his submission by appointing him satrap of Babylonia.

Persian Gates

A narrow mountain pass defended by Ariobarzanes where Alexander's initial frontal assault failed until local prisoners guided him along a rugged trail around the rear to encircle the Persian force.

Persepolis

The ceremonial capital of the Persian Empire, looted and burned by Alexander in winter 330 BCE; Plutarch attributes the arson to the Athenian courtesan Thais at a drunken symposium, while Arrian records it as calculated retribution for Xerxes' invasion of Greece.

Bessus

Satrap of Bactria who arrested and murdered Darius III in summer 330 BCE, proclaimed himself Artaxerxes IV, and was later hunted down by Ptolemy and executed for regicide.

Proskynesis

The Persian court custom of bowing low or prostrating before the monarch; Alexander's attempt to impose this ritual on his court in 327 BCE met severe resistance from Macedonians and Greeks who viewed it as worship due only to gods.

Philotas

Commander of the Companion Cavalry and eldest son of Parmenio; after boasting of his own importance and failing to inform Alexander of a conspiracy against his life, he was condemned and executed in 330 BCE.

Parmenio

Philip II's veteran second-in-command who commanded the Macedonian left flank at the Granicus, Issus, and Gaugamela; he was assassinated on Alexander's orders in Media in 330 BCE following the execution of his son Philotas.

Sogdian Rock

A seemingly impregnable cliff fortress whose defenders challenged Alexander to find winged soldiers; 300 Macedonian volunteers climbed the sheer rock face at night with tent-pegs and ropes, forcing the rebels to surrender.

Roxane

Bactrian noblewoman and daughter of Oxyartes whom Alexander married in 327 BCE after capturing the Sogdian Rock; the union formed a political bridge with eastern satraps and produced Alexander IV.

Callisthenes

Official court historian and nephew of Aristotle who openly refused to perform proskynesis; he was subsequently implicated in the Hermolaus conspiracy (Pages' Plot) and died in chains.

Siege of Aornus (winter 327/326 BCE)

A high, steep mountain stronghold situated above the Indus River that myth said Heracles had failed to conquer; Alexander bridged a massive ravine with an earthen mound, forcing the defenders to evacuate.

Battle of the Hydaspes (May 326 BCE)

Alexander's costly victory over King Porus in Punjab; Alexander made a secret night crossing in a monsoon storm, enveloped Porus' 200 war elephants, and restored Porus to his throne as a client king.

River Hyphasis (Beas)

The eastern limit of Alexander's Asian conquest in 326 BCE, where his battle-weary troops openly refused to march further into India toward the Ganges; Alexander withdrew after sulking in his tent and erected twelve gigantic altars.

Peucestas

Macedonian bodyguard who held the sacred shield of Athena from Troy over Alexander when the king was critically wounded by an arrow through the lung inside a Mallian fortification.

Calanus

Indian gymnosophist philosopher who joined Alexander's inner circle, advised him to rule from the center of his realm, and later burned himself to death on a funeral pyre in Persia, promising to meet Alexander again in Babylon.

Gedrosian Desert

A hyper-arid coastal desert in southern Iran through which Alexander led his army in 325 BCE during a disastrous 60-day march, resulting in the death of up to three-quarters of his men from thirst, famine, and heatstroke.

Susa Weddings (spring 324 BCE)

A grand mass wedding ceremony in Susa where Alexander married Darius III's eldest daughter (Statira/Barsine) and Parysatis, while 80 leading Macedonian Companions married Persian noblewomen to fuse the two ruling classes.

Epigoni

A corps of 30,000 Asian youths recruited from the eastern satrapies, educated in Greek, and trained to fight in the Macedonian phalanx manner, sparking intense resentment among veteran Macedonian soldiers.

Opis Mutiny (summer 324 BCE)

A troop revolt sparked when Alexander announced the discharge of veterans; Alexander executed 13 ringleaders, gave a famous speech reminding them of Philip's and his achievements, and hosted a banquet of reconciliation praying for harmony between Macedonians and Persians.

Hephaestion

Alexander's dearest lifelong companion, high-ranking commander, and alter ego; when he died of fever at Ecbatana in autumn 324 BCE, Alexander engaged in extravagant mourning, ordered a 10,000-talent funeral pyre, and campaigned against the Cossaeans in grief.

Chaldaeans

Babylonian priests and astronomers who warned Alexander not to march into Babylon in early 323 BCE because portents indicated it would prove fatal to him.

Medius

Alexander's Thessalian friend from Larissa who hosted the late-night drinking bouts in Babylon after which Alexander developed the fever that caused his death in June 323 BCE.

"To the best"

Alexander's famous dying response (Greek: tôi kratistôi) when his generals gathered around his bed and asked him to whom he left his empire, triggering decades of conflict among the Successors.

Policy of Fusion

Alexander's broader imperial policy to unify Macedonian, Greek, and Persian subjects through mass cross-cultural marriages, integration of Asian recruits into the army, and adoption of Persian royal ceremonies and attire.