Psychology Chapter 4 - Approaches to understand learning

Learning

A relatively permanent change in an organism's behaviour that occurs as a result of experience

Memory

The processing (encoding), storage and retrieval of information acquired through learning.

Conditioning

One of the most basic types of learning involving linking stimuli (or 'events') that occur close together to modify an organism's response through experience. Responses are 'conditional' on an organism's experience.

Behaviourism

A systematic approach to understanding organisms' behaviour, that focuses on learning as a result of interaction with environmental stimuli. It centres around outwardly observable behaviours and minimises the role of mental processing.

When was behaviourism founded?

In the early 20th century it became the dominant psychology in an effort to make the field more rigorous, thanks to John B. Watson and his controversial 'Little Albert' experiment

Pavlov's Dogs

Through investigations into digestion in dogs, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov inadvertently classically conditioned his dogs to anticipate the taste of food, and to salivate in response to cues such the lab assistant that made their food.

Classical conditioning

A type of behavioural learning that occurs through the repeated association of two+ stimuli, in which an involuntary association is formed due to anticipation between a neutral and an unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response.

When is learning said to have occurred in classical conditioning?

When a particular stimulus consistently produces a response that it did not previously produce

5 elements of classical conditioning

NEUTRAL STIMULUS (NS) - any stimulus that does not normally produce a predictable response

UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS (UCS) - any stimulus that consistently produces a particular, naturally occurring, automatic response

UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE (UCR) - the response that occurs automatically when the UCS is presented

CONDITIONED STIMULUS (CS) - the stimulus that elicits a very similar response to that caused by the UCS (after conditioning)

CONDITIONED RESPONSE/Conditioned reflex (Pavlov) (CR) - learned response produced by the CS

Acquisition

Classical conditioning - overall process where an organism learns to associate a NS and UCS through repeated trials (pairings)

Operant conditioning - the strengthening of a reinforced response.

The 3-Phase Model of Classical Conditioning

BEFORE CONDITIONING: The UCS naturally produces the UCR, while the NS produces no response.

NS --> no response

UCS --> UCR

DURING CONDITIONING (acquisition phase): The NS and the UCS are paired repeatedly, in that order.

NS + UCS --> UCR

AFTER CONDITIONING: The previously NS is now called the CS, and it now produces the CR on its own.

CS --> CR

Factors that influence classical conditioning

Nature of the response (reflexive, automatic, involuntary), association of stimuli (contiguity must occur through repeated association), timing of the NS and UCS pairing (NS before and UCS no more than half a second later)

Hard classically conditioned example (cars)

When driving a car behind another vehicle, we must form an anticipatory connection between their brake lights and the need to slow down. Eventually, this response becomes so automatic that we rarely give it much thought.

Contiguity

The formation of a connection or association between two events when the events occur close together in time and/or space.

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response. Occurs when UCS is no longer presented with CS (CC); when reinforcement ceases (OC)

Spontaneous recovery

The tendency of a conditioned response to return after extinction and a rest break once CS is reintroduced. CR is weaker than when first conditioned

Stimulus generalisation

The organism will respond by producing a CR to stimuli that are similar to the CS (e.g. A child who was bitten by a dog now fears all dogs not just pit bull terriers)

Stimulus discrimination

The organism only responds to the CS and no other similar stimuli (e.g. Your dog gets excited when you put your Nike runners on, not any other white shoes)

Phobias

Complex instances of classically conditioned emotional responses involving intense, irrational and persistent fear of specific things

Role of Amygdala in conditioned fear responses

Involved in regulation of fear response and the learning and consolidation of emotional significance of memories.

Classical conditioning and drug use

Overdoses are more common in unfamiliar environments, as an addict classically conditions their body to produce compensatory response (to better overcome the drug) to their familiar environment, and when this environment is removed the compensatory effect is too.

Taste aversion

A special type of classical conditioning, known as one trial learning, can occur when the stimulus induces an intense response such as vomiting. This is adaptive, as it causes us to avoid foods that are poisonous.

Operant conditioning

A behaviourist learning process whereby the consequences of a voluntary behaviour modify the likelihood that it will be performed again in the future. Our behaviour operates on the environment and is instrumental in producing the consequences.

Skinner Box

American Psychologist, B.F Skinner's operant conditioning chamber for animals, where food is dispensed to animals only after carrying out a specific behaviour. Electrical shock areas were also present

Operant

Any response (or set of responses) that acts ('operates') on the environment to produce some kind of consequence. I.e. an initially spontaneous behaviour that can be reinforced or punished

What kind of behaviours are involved in operant conditioning?

Voluntary responses. An operant is a voluntary action that an organism initiates.

The 3-Phase Model of Operant Condtioning

Antecedent stimulus - Environmental conditions (stimulus) that precede the behaviour, signalling its possible consequences and therefore influencing the occurrence of the behaviour.

Behaviour(/operant) - Voluntary action/s produced in response to antecedent that affect environment.

Consequence -Environmental events occurring immediately after behaviour that change its strength and frequency

Formal explanation of the 3-phase model of operant conditioning

The probability of particular behaviour (B) occurring in response to an antecedent stimulus (A) is a function of ('depends on') the consequence (C) that has followed (the B) in the past.

Reinforcement

Consequences that strengthen the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated in the future. Only occurs after the desired response is made

Reinforcer

Any stimulus that strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a response that it follows.

Positive reinforcement

Giving or applying a positive reinforcer (pleasant consequence stimulus after the target behaviour has been performed. E.g. getting an A on your test after studying

Negative reinforcement

The removal or avoidance of a negative reinforcer (unpleasant stimulus that when removed strengthens a behaviour) after the target behaviour has been performed. E.g. Headaches can be removed with panadol, reinforcing taking panadol.

Punishment

Consequences that weaken the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated.

Positive punishment

Giving or applying an unpleasant stimulus after the target behaviour has been performed. E.g. running laps for being late, weakening the likelihood of being late again

Negative punishment

The removal or loss of a pleasant stimulus after the target, undesired behaviour has been performed. E.g. Having your phone taken off you (response cost) for using it in class, weakening the likelihood of you using it in class again

Response Cost

(negative punishment) Punishment by removal of positive reinforcers

Factors that influence operant conditioning

Order of presentation (consequences always follow behaviour), timing (consequence occurs immediately after behaviour), appropriateness (if punishment is too severe it can have inverse effect as it is seen as unfair and therefore unrelated to behaviour)

Classical vs Operant conditioning

Classical:

- Association of two stimuli

- Needs repeated association

- Organism behaviour doesn't affect environmental consequence

- Learner is passive

- UCS must occur immediately after NS

- Involuntary/reflexive (ANS)

Operant:

- Association of behaviour and its consequences

- Needs repeated association

- Organism behaviour affects environmental consequence

- Learner is active

- Consequence can occur a bit after behaviour

- Voluntary (ANS but higher order as it is conscious and intentional)

Social-cognitive theory

An approach to understanding learning that focuses on our ability to learn from other people through applying a sequence of mental processes. More efficient than conditioning, predominate in humans, where voluntary behaviours can be correctly performed first time and we don't have to directly experience consequences

Who developed the social-cognitive theory?

Albert Bandura in the second half of the 20th century, to bridge the gap between behaviourism and a more advanced psychology of human cognition

Model

Live or symbolic things that are observed to vicariously learn behaviours.

Observational learning

A form of social-cognitive learning where we acquire skills or knowledge from watching others' behaviour and the consequences of that behaviour.

Vicarious conditioning

Observing consequences of others' operant behaviours, in order to increase or decrease our likelihood of performing the same behaviour. Includes vicarious punishment and vicarious reinforcement.

Bandura's Bobo doll experiment findings

• There is a difference between learning and performance

• New skills and information can be stored internally even if the actions are not performed by the learner

5 processes of observational learning

(ARRMR)

Attention

Retention

Reproduction

Motivation

Reinforcement

Attention

The first process of observational learning. Learner must be consciously aware of model's behaviour and must be observing it. Dependent on model's attractiveness and similarities to the learner, learner's perceptual capabilities, level of interest, situation, distractions and behaviour salience.

Retention

2nd process of observational learning. Storage of the mental representation of what we have observed in our memories so that it can be recalled later.

Reproduction

The 3rd process of observational learning. The physical ability to imitate the behaviour that has been observed.

Motivation

The desire to reproduce the behaviour

Reinforcement (in observational learning)

5th process of observational learning. Consequences that influence the motivation to reproduce the observed behaviour and increases the likelihood of reproduction. Types are external, vicarious and self.

3 types of reinforcement in observational learning

External reinforcement - Comes directly to learner when they imitate the behaviour

Vicarious reinforcement - Received from watching the model being reinforced

Self-reinforcement - Comes from meeting self-set standards

Self-efficacy

Our belief in our ability to accomplish tasks and succeed. If we have low self-esteem, we are more likely to imitate a model's behaviour.

What is an example of an approach to learning that situates the learner within a system?

ATSI ways of knowing, where learning is viewed as being holistically embedded in relationships where the learner is part of a multimodal system of knowledge relational to patterned by Country.

ATSI's ways of knowing

Represent the oldest continuing forms of learning and knowledge production in Australia. Made up of a multimodal system that is holistic and relational to Country both spiritually and physically

Multi-modal learning system

Means a person learns through a combination of two or more modes (e.g. written, spoken, visual, audio, gestural, tactile, spatial). Learning occurs in a way or manner in which something is experienced, expressed, or done.

What is critical to ATSI self identity?

Demonstrating where one is from and connection to Country and its responsibilities

Why have ATSI knowledge systems lasted many thousands of years?

Due to the intimate and respectful relationships they have with all things between the people and Country. Respecting Country is what makes the essence of the relationship so strong.

How is knowledge spatially connected in ATSI systems?

Knowledge is attached to numerous locations along navigational tracks (songlines) throughout Australia. It is in a multimodal form, often communicated in song, dance, narratives and ceremony.

What is integral to ATSI culture?

Connection to and relationship with each other, animals, plants and Country. Modelling of behaviours in 'natural' contexts occur when people interact, and this is replicated generationally.

ATSI 8 ways of knowing

Community-identity

Image

Story-transformation

Thought-action

Land-place

Process-plan

Cycle-synthesis

Whole-part

Ways the 8 ATSI ways of knowing can manifest

- Stories, song, histories

- Knowledge processes, navigating mental landscapes, visual records

- Unspoken/ancestral/instinctive knowledge, body language and silences

- Symbols and images

- Knowledge of connection to land, place and others

- Non-linear ideas, circular logic, adaptive capacity

- Holistic knowledge and balance of individual and communal needs

- Kinship and communal governance

When is learning said to have occurred in social-cognitive learning approaches such as observational learning?

Learning can not be definitively defined to have occurred or not, as in observational/social-cognitive learning, a person could have been vicariously conditioned to produce a behaviour, but not have the motivation, reason or physical ability to reproduce the behaviour.