Government - Test 2

Congress

The national legislature of the United States.

Legislate

One of the primary functions of Congress, involving creating laws.

Authorize and Appropriate

The congressional responsibility of creating programs and putting money behind them.

Represent Constituents

A core duty of Congress to speak for and serve the interests of the people they represent.

Oversight

Congressional monitoring of the executive branch through hearings, investigations, and impeachment.

House of Representatives

The lower chamber of Congress with 435 members serving two-year terms, based on proportional representation, where new taxes and impeachment must start.

Senate

The upper chamber of Congress with 100 members serving six-year terms, based on equal representation by state, which provides advice and consent on appointments and treaties.

Gatekeeping

The ability of committee and party leaders to decide which bills move forward in the legislative process and which ones die.

Congressional Committees

Subdivisions that consider bills and decide whether to recommend them to the full chamber, helping to divide work, develop expertise, and maintain party control.

Committee Chair

The leader of a committee who sets its agenda, appointed by party leaders based on seniority and expertise.

Markup

The editing process a bill goes through within a committee.

Ideology

A system of ideas, or worldview, that forms the basis of political views (such as liberal/progressive or conservative).

Delegate

A model of representation where a member of Congress acts strictly according to the wishes of their constituents.

Trustee

A model of representation where a member of Congress acts according to their own judgment of what is in the best interest of the nation or district.

Politico

A model of representation where a member of Congress follows constituent views on high-salience matters but relies on personal judgment on lower-salience issues.

Substantive Representation

When legislators listen to, advocate for, or vote for policies aligned with their constituents' interests.

Descriptive Representation

When legislators look like or come from the same backgrounds (such as race, gender, occupation, or education) as their constituents.

House Rules Committee

A committee in the House that determines the scope of debate and amendment opportunities, operating like a "cartel".

Filibuster

A tactic used by an individual senator in the Senate to delay or halt legislation by stalling proposals.

Cloture

A procedure to end a filibuster that requires a supermajority vote (typically 60 senators).

Conference Committee

A temporary joint committee formed to resolve differences when bills passed by each chamber do not match exactly.

Veto Override

The process by which Congress can pass a bill over a presidential veto, typically requiring a two-thirds vote in each chamber.

Expressed Powers

The powers directly granted to the president by Article II of the Constitution (such as vetoing bills, setting the legislative agenda, making appointments, negotiating treaties, and serving as Commander in Chief).

Soft Power

The degree to which a president is appealing and persuasive, making others want to follow their lead and enact their agenda.

Electoral Mandate

A source of soft power occurring when a president is elected by a wide margin, allowing them to claim strong public support for their agenda.

Coattail Effect

When a popular president's wide margin of victory helps fellow partisans win seats in Congress.

Approval Rating

A daily measure of whether Americans approve of how the president is handling the job, which directly influences presidential soft power.

Honeymoon Period

A period at the beginning of a president's first term when approval ratings are high and new presidents can achieve major legislative goals.

Rally Around the Flag Effect

An event or crisis that brings the country together patriotically, temporarily boosting presidential support.

Bully Pulpit

A terrific platform provided by the presidency for speaking out, drawing attention to an agenda, and rallying public support.

Impeachment

The constitutional process where the House approves articles of impeachment by a simple majority, and the Senate tries the president and can convict with a two-thirds vote.

Bureaucracy

The collection of public organizations, departments, and agencies under the executive branch that administer government programs and services.

Political Appointees

Leaders of agencies and departments appointed by the president (sometimes requiring Senate approval) to help implement the executive agenda.

The Cabinet

Department heads appointed by the president who help implement policy and provide advice based on their area of expertise.

Executive Orders

Instructions issued by the president to the bureaucracy regarding the implementation of expressed or statutory powers; a form of unilateral action.

Judicial Review

The authority of the Supreme Court to strike down any law or action it deems unconstitutional.

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

The landmark Supreme Court case that established judicial review and elevated the Court to co-equal status.

Rule of Four

The operational rule stating that if at least four Supreme Court justices agree to hear a case, it is granted a writ of certiorari ("cert").

Adversarial System

The judicial system structure where there is a petitioner and a respondent, each making arguments for their side.

Shadow Docket

A complex process involving emergency or expedited orders and actions by the Supreme Court outside standard full briefing and oral argument procedures.

Legal Model

A model of judicial decision-making based strictly on the plain meaning of the law and legal precedent.

Strategic Model

A model where judges seek to enact their preferences but are constrained by law, precedent, the cases brought before them, and their colleagues' preferences.

Majority Opinion (Opinion of the Court)

The official written opinion of the Supreme Court that explains the reasoning behind a ruling and creates binding precedent for all lower courts.

Dissenting Opinion

An opinion written by the losing side of the Court to explain their reasoning and provide a rationale for potentially overturning precedent or amending the Constitution in the future.

Stare Decisis

The legal principle of determining points in litigation according to precedent, as established by majority opinions.

Supremacy Clause

The constitutional provision making Supreme Court majority opinions part of the supreme law of the land.

Attitudinal Model

A model of judicial decision-making where judges base decisions on their own personal preferences and ideology rather than law or precedent