Chapter 7 Weather and Climate: Air Masses, Fronts, Cyclones, and Storms
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199 Terms
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | Weather
The short-term, day-to-day condition of the atmosphere.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | Climate
The long-term average of weather conditions and extremes in a region, measured over decades.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | Why does Earth transfer energy from the equator toward the poles?
The equator receives more radiant energy than the poles, so Earth's system tends to restore energy equilibrium.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | Air mass
A body of air with relatively uniform temperature, humidity, and stability characteristics.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | Source region
The region where an air mass forms; its characteristics influence the air mass.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | What do the lowercase c and m mean in air-mass labels?
c = continental (generally dry); m = maritime (generally moist).
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | What do A, P, T, E, and AA stand for in air-mass labels?
Arctic, polar, tropical, equatorial, and Antarctic.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | What is cP air?
Continental polar air: cold, dry, and generally stable.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | What conditions are associated with cP air in winter?
Cold temperatures, clear skies, and stable atmospheric conditions.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | What can happen when cP air pushes into warmer, moister air?
The warmer air rises, cools, and condenses, potentially forming winter storms along a cold front.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | What is mP air?
Maritime polar air that forms over mid- and high-latitude oceans and brings cool, moist air.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | What are the two mP-associated low-pressure areas surrounding North America in the notes?
The Aleutian Low over the North Pacific and the Icelandic Low.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | What is mT air?
Maritime tropical air that forms over low-latitude oceans and is warm and moist.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | How do Pacific and North Atlantic mT air masses differ in the notes?
Pacific mT air is more stable or conditionally unstable and has less moisture; North Atlantic mT air is more unstable and helps make the East Coast wet from spring into autumn.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | Air-mass modification
Changes in an air mass's properties as it moves from its source region.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | How does lake-effect snow form?
Cold air passes over a warmer body of water, gains moisture, and can deposit snow on nearby land.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | What must happen for precipitation to form through lifting?
Air must rise and cool adiabatically to its dew point; water vapor condenses, forming clouds and precipitation.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | Convergent lifting
Air flows together from different directions at the surface and is forced upward; rising air cools and can form clouds and rain.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | What pressure system is associated with convergent lifting?
A low-pressure center beneath the rising air.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | Convectional lifting
A warm surface heats the air above it, causing the air to rise; instability can sustain the rise and produce clouds and rain.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | Example of convectional lifting in the notes
The Florida Peninsula.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | Orographic lifting
Air is forced upward or downward by a change in land elevation, such as a mountain range.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | How does atmospheric stability affect mountain clouds?
Stable air tends to produce stratiform clouds; unstable air tends to produce cumuliform clouds.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | Frontal lifting
Lifting that occurs at the boundary between two air masses.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | Front
A narrow zone or boundary between contrasting air masses.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | Cold front
The leading edge of a cold air mass pushing into a warmer air mass; represented by triangles on weather maps.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | Warm front
A boundary where warm air slides over cooler air; represented by semicircles on weather maps.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | What may indicate that a warm front has passed?
A sudden temperature increase and a shift in wind direction.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | Where can precipitation occur around fronts?
Along a cold front and hundreds of kilometers ahead of the leading edge of a warm front.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | Midlatitude cyclone
A low-pressure system with cyclonic flow that develops where contrasting air masses meet, typically along the polar front.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | In which direction do typical midlatitude cyclones track?
West to east.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | How long does a midlatitude cyclone life cycle typically take?
About 3-10 days.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | Cyclogenesis
The beginning of cyclone development, initiated by a disturbance along the polar front.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | Open stage of a midlatitude cyclone
The cyclone develops and the Coriolis force rotates air around the low-pressure center.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | Occluded stage
The cold front moves faster than the warm front and catches up with it.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | Dissolving stage
The warm air has been completely lifted off the ground; without this warm air, the cyclone loses its fuel for convection.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | What do weather satellites do?
Collect weather and climate data.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | What do weather balloons measure?
They rise into the atmosphere and collect a vertical profile, including temperature.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | What is a major source of ground-based weather observations?
Automated surface observation systems.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | What is Doppler radar especially important for?
Forecasting severe weather.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | What does greater radar reflectivity (dBZ) generally indicate?
Heavier precipitation.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | What can a hook echo indicate on radar?
A possible tornado.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | Why is weather forecasting challenging?
The atmosphere is chaotic by nature, even though forecasting accuracy continues to improve.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | Which US organizations are named in the notes for severe-weather research and monitoring?
NOAA's National Severe Storms Laboratory and NOAA's Storm Prediction Center.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | When is a snowstorm classified as a blizzard in the notes?
When sustained winds exceed 35 mph.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | What conditions help thunderstorms form?
A rapid updraft of warm, moist air; they often form along cold fronts, mountain slopes, or in warm, moist climates.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | How does lightning develop in a thunderstorm?
Updrafts and downdrafts cause ice crystals and cloud droplets to collide and transfer electrons, building electrical charge.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | What is a supercell?
A large thunderstorm characterized by rotation and strong convective activity, fueled by abundant warm, moist air.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | Derecho
A storm producing powerful straight-line winds of at least 58 mph and damage extending over 240 miles.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | When do most derechos occur, according to the notes?
More than 70% occur between May and August.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | Tornado
A rotating column of air extending downward from a cumulonimbus cloud.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | How does a tornado-forming mesocyclone develop?
Wind shear causes air to rotate; a powerful updraft tilts the rotating air upward, forming a mesocyclone.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | Enhanced Fujita (EF) scale
A scale used to measure tornado intensity.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | Tornado watch vs. tornado warning
A watch means conditions are favorable for tornado formation; a warning means a tornado is currently on the ground, according to the study notes.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | When and where are tornadoes most common in the notes?
The central plains from April through June.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | When is a storm classified as a tropical cyclone in the notes?
When sustained winds reach 74 mph.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | What fuels a tropical cyclone?
Warm ocean water; warmer water can support a stronger storm.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | What wind condition is needed for tropical cyclone development?
Low vertical wind shear.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | Why can't hurricanes form at the equator?
The Coriolis force is too weak there.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | Where do tropical cyclones initially form?
As disturbances on the east side of ocean basins.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | What is the relationship between strong wind shear and tropical cyclones versus supercells?
Strong wind shear inhibits tropical cyclone development, while wind shear can help a supercell develop rotation.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | What hurricane impacts are listed in the notes?
Hurricane Katrina made landfall near New Orleans on August 28, 2005, with about $152 billion in adjusted nationwide damages; Superstorm Sandy made landfall in New Jersey on October 29, 2012.
Chapter 7 — Weather and Climate | How can climate change affect tropical cyclones?
Warmer temperatures can warm oceans, which provide energy to tropical cyclones.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | What percentage of Earth's surface is covered by water?
About 71%.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | Has Earth's total water content changed greatly over the last 2 billion years?
The notes say it has remained near-constant.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | How do glaciers affect sea level in cooler climates?
More water is stored in glaciers, so sea levels drop.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | What happens to sea level as glaciers melt in warmer climates?
Sea levels rise.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | How much of Earth's water is freshwater?
Very little; most of Earth's water is salt water.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | Hydrologic cycle
The movement and transformation of water through Earth's four spheres.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | How long does water reside in the atmosphere, according to the notes?
About 3-10 days.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | Interception
Precipitation caught by vegetation or other ground cover before reaching the ground surface.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | Throughfall
Precipitation that reaches the ground surface directly rather than being intercepted.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | Percolation
The downward movement of infiltrated water through soil and rock.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | Zone of saturation
The subsurface zone where all pore spaces are completely filled with water.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | Where does surface and subsurface water ultimately flow?
Back toward the ocean, although closed lake basins or dams can interrupt the flow; water can eventually evaporate.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | Water budget
An assessment of parts of the water cycle as they relate to water resources.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | How does the water-budget analogy work?
Precipitation is income, soil moisture storage is savings, and evapotranspiration is expenditure.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | When is there a water surplus?
When precipitation and soil-moisture supply exceed evapotranspiration.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | Precipitation
Rain, hail, sleet, or snow.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | Actual evapotranspiration
The observed loss of water to the atmosphere.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | Potential evapotranspiration
The potential rate of water loss to the atmosphere through evaporation and plant transpiration when water is available.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | Gravitational water
Water in saturated soil after recent rainfall that drains under gravity.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | Capillary water
Water held to soil by cohesion; plants can use it because oxygen supply is not cut off as it can be in saturated soil.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | Hygroscopic water
A very thin layer of water bound to soil particles; plants cannot use enough of it, so irrigation may be necessary.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | How does soil permeability affect recharge?
More permeable soil can recharge more quickly when water is supplied.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | Drought
An extended period of dry conditions associated with lower precipitation and higher temperatures.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | What are two effects of drought listed in the notes?
Reduced streamflow and crop failure.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | How can climate change affect drought?
It may prolong and worsen drought conditions in affected areas.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | What supplies streamflow in places with seasonal snow and glaciers?
Melting glaciers and snowpack.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | What feeds rivers and lakes?
Streamflow, precipitation, and groundwater.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | What is a wetland?
An area permanently or seasonally saturated with water, with vegetation adapted to hydric soils.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | Examples of wetlands
Marshes, swamps, bogs, and peatlands.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | Why are wetlands important?
They support freshwater supply and groundwater recharge; sediments can trap pollutants and remove nutrients, helping purify water.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | How important is groundwater globally, according to the notes?
It supplies about 80% of global irrigation water and almost half of global drinking water.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | How is groundwater replenished?
Mostly by rainfall and other surface water that infiltrates underground.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | Aquifer
An underground water-bearing formation that stores and transmits groundwater.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | What is a confined aquifer?
An aquifer under pressure, so water may rise without pumping because of pressure from the water's own weight.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | What happens when groundwater is overused?
Groundwater mining lowers the water table.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | What risk does excessive groundwater pumping create near coastlines?
Seawater intrusion into freshwater aquifers.
Chapter 8 — Water on Earth | Why is the Ogallala Aquifer important?
It has been crucial for crop irrigation since the post-World War II period.