EMOTION AND MOTIVATION

Motivation

________ is what pushes us to act toward a goal

Intrinsic, Extrinsic

Types of motivation:

_______: Comes from WITHIN. You do something because it’s satisfying or enjoyable (e.g., studying because you love learning).

_______: Comes from OUTSIDE rewards or pressures (e.g, studying to get a high-paying job or to please your parents).

● Mix of motives: Most of the time, our actions are driven by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors, and the balance can change over time

Overjustification Effect

______________ → when external rewards reduce internal enjoyment. → example: • Odessa loves baking (intrinsic motivation). • When she gets a bakery job, baking becomes tied to money (extrinsic motivation). • Over time, she loses the desire to bake for fun.

Tangible rewards, Intangible rewards

____________ (like money) often REDUCE intrinsic motivation.

____________ (like praise) can BOOST intrinsic motivation.

Instinct Theory

___________ (William James)

● Early idea: behavior is driven by INSTINCTS (automatic, unlearned patterns that help survival).

● Examples: mother protecting her baby, craving sugar.

● Criticism: human behavior is strongly shaped by learning, not just instincts

Homeostasis, Drive theory

Drive Theory & Homeostasis

● ___________: the body TRIES to stay BALANCED (e.g., normal blood sugar).

● ___________: when balance is off, we feel a NEED → creates a DRIVE → motivates BEHAVIOR.

- Example: hunger drives us to eat, restoring

balance.

● Habits form: once a behavior reduces a drive, we repeat it in the future

Arousal Theory, Yerkes-Dodson Law

___________

● People seek an optimal level of arousal (not too bored, not too stressed).

● ___________:

- Simple tasks → HELP best with HIGHER arousal.

- Complex tasks → HELP best with LOWER arousal.

● Example: students stressed at semester’s end (too HIGH arousal), then bored in summer (too LOW).

Moderate arousal = best performance.

Self-Efficacy

___________ (Bandura)

● Motivation depends on belief in your ability to

succeed. IF you believe you CAN do something, you’re MORE likely to try HARD and PERSIST

Achievement, Affiliation, Intimacy

Social Motives

● Humans are motivated by social needs:

- _______: drive to succeed.

- _______: need to connect with others.

- _______: desire for close relationships.

● These fall into domains like ambition, power, and affection.

Physiological, Safety, Love & belonging, Esteem, Self-actualization

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

● Pyramid of needs, from basic to advanced:

- _________ (food, water)

- _________ (security, stability)

- _________ (relationships)

- _________ (confidence, respect)

- _________ (reaching full potential)

● Later, Maslow added self-transcendence (going beyond self, e.g., Gandhi’s hunger strikes for justice).

● Criticism: too subjective, doesn’t always fit real-life situations.

Hunger and Eating

___________ - Eating is necessary for survival, so hunger motivates us to find food.

Empty stomach, Low blood sugar, Rising blood sugar, Food moving through

Hunger and Satiety

● Hunger signals:

- __________ → contractions + chemical messages to the BRAIN.

- __________ → pancreas & liver send hunger SIGNALS.

● Satiety (fullness):

- __________ → signals to stop eating.

- __________ the digestive tract → satiety signals.

- Fat cells release leptin, a hormone that reduces hunger.

● Brain role: Hypothalamus and hindbrain integrate signals to decide when to eat or stop

Extra calories, Fewer calories, Metabolic rate, Set-point theory

Metabolism and Body Weight

● Calories in vs. calories out:

- _________ → stored as fat.

- _________ than burned → fat used for

energy.

● _________: varies by person; higher metabolism burns calories faster.

● _________: suggests each person has a “natural” weight range that resists change.

- Criticized because it doesn’t fully explain

social/environmental influences.

Bulimia nervosa, Binge eating disorder, Anorexia nervosa

Eating Disorders

● _______: binge eating → purging (vomiting, laxatives, excessive exercise).

- Risks: kidney/heart failure, tooth decay, anxiety, depression, substance abuse.

● ________: binge eating without purging, followed by guilt/distress

● ________: extreme restriction of food → very low body weight.

- Distorted body image (seeing oneself as overweight). - Risks: bone loss, heart/kidney failure, menstrual problems, death.

Biological role, Human behavior

_________: Sex is essential for reproduction and

survival of the species.

_________: Sexual activity is not only about

reproduction—it also involves pleasure, intimacy, and

relationships.

Hypothalamus, Limbic system, Humans, Hormones

_____________: Key brain area for motivated behaviors, including sex.

- In rats, damage to the medial preoptic area stops sexual ability but not sexual motivation.

● _________ (amygdala, nucleus accumbens): Important for sexual motivation. Damage reduces desire but not ability.

● _________: Similar patterns—sexual ability and motivation can be separate.

- Example: Erectile dysfunction drugs show motivation and ability can be dissociated.

● _________: Testosterone levels influence sexual motivation in both men and women.

Kinsey’s Research, Kinsey Scale

● Conducted large-scale surveys on sexual behavior. ● Published Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948) and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953).

● Findings:

- Women are as interested in sex as men.

- Masturbation is common and not harmful.

- Homosexual acts are more common than previously thought.

● Developed the _________ (continuum of sexual

orientation).

● Impact: Opened public discussion on sexuality,

though controversial and criticized for sampling

errors.

______________ (1940s-1950s)

Excitement, Plateau, Orgasm, Resolution, Masters and Johnson’s Research

● Observed nearly 700 participants and recorded physiological responses during sexual activity.

● Identified the sexual response cycle: (EPOR)

- ______: Arousal begins (erection, lubrication).

- ______: Increased arousal, muscle tension.

- ______: Rhythmic contractions, ejaculation in men.

- ______: Return to unaroused state.

a. Men experience a refractory period (time

before another orgasm).

b. Women can often repeat the cycle quickly.

● Findings also dispelled myths:

- Penis size does not determine sexual pleasure. - The vagina is elastic and adapts to different sizes

____________________ (1960s)

Conversion therapy, Sexual Orientation

● Definition: Emotional and erotic attraction to others.

● Most people identify as heterosexual, but many identify as homosexual or bisexual.

● Research estimates 3–10% of the population Identifies as homosexual.

● Causes:

- Not explained by family or upbringing.

- Evidence points to biological and genetic factors (genes, brain differences, body traits).

● Key point: Sexual orientation is not a choice and cannot be changed.

- “_____________” has been discredited and shown to be harmful.

- Laws in some places (e.g., California) ban such practices.

_________________

Gender Identity

● Definition: A person’s sense of being male, female, or another gender.

● Usually matches biological sex, but not always.

● Gender dysphoria: When someone feels their biological sex does not match their true identity.

- Must last at least 6 months and cause distress to be diagnosed (DSM-5).

● Some individuals transition through clothing, hormone therapy, or surgery to align with their identity.

______________

Sexual orientation, Gender identity

● Attitudes toward sexuality and gender vary across

cultures.

● ___________:

- In the U.S., heterosexuality is seen as the norm.

- In some cultures, homosexual behavior is part of normal development (e.g., boys in parts of New Guinea).

● ___________:

- U.S. culture is largely two-gendered (male/female).

- Other cultures recognize more categories (e.g., kathoey—similar to transgender/intersex).

Emotion

________ - are intense feelings that happen in response to specific experiences. They are usually conscious and intentional (e.g., joy when something good happens, anger when betrayed, fear when threatened).

Moods

_________ - are longer-lasting, less intense states. They don’t always come from a clear event or cause. People may not even notice they are in a mood. LIKE feeling generally irritable or cheerful w/ out knowing why

Physiological arousal, Psychological appraisal, Subjective experience

Components of Emotion

● Emotions involve three parts: (PPS)

1. __________ (body reactions like heart rate, sweating).

2. __________ (how we interpret the situation).

3. __________ (our personal feeling).

● Different people may feel differently in the same situation because of background and culture

James-Lange Theory

__________________

→ Emotions come after body reactions. → Example: You see a snake → heart races → then you feel fear.

Cannon-Bard Theory

______________

→ Emotions and body reactions happen at the same time, but separately.

→ Example: You see a snake → you feel fear and your body reacts simultaneously.

Schachter-Singer

_________________ Two-Factor Theory

→ Emotions = arousal + cognitive label.

→ Example: Snake → body arousal → you interpret it as fear because of the context.

→ Experiment: Men injected with adrenaline felt emotions (anger/euphoria) depending on the behavior of another person in the room.

Cognitive-Mediational Theory

_________________ (Lazarus)

→ Emotions depend on how we appraise (evaluate) a situation.

→ Appraisal happens quickly, often unconsciously, before the emotion.

Zajonc & LeDoux’s, Fast, Slow

___________ Views

→ Some emotions happen instantly, without thought (like fear from a loud noise).

→ LeDoux showed the amygdala processes fear through two pathways:

- ____ route: thalamus → amygdala (quick reaction).

- ____ route: thalamus → cortex → amygdala (more

detailed processing)

Hypothalamus, Thalamus, Amygdala, Hippocampus

● The limbic system is the brain’s emotion center.

● Key parts:

- ________ → triggers the body’s fight-or-flight response.

- ________ → relays sensory information to the amygdala and cortex.

- ________ → processes emotional information, especially fear and anxiety.

- ________ → links emotions with memory and thinking (new memories)

Basolateral complex, Central nucleus

Amygdala

● Made up of two main parts:

- _____________ → connects with sensory areas; attaches emotional meaning to learning and memory.

- _____________ → controls attention and regulates body responses through the hypothalamus and brainstem.

● Animal studies show the amygdala’s role in fear

learning.

- Example: Rat pups learned to fear an odor paired with shock—but only when their mother was absent.

● Early life stress or abuse can change amygdala function, leading to depressive-like behaviors later.

Hippocampus

________________

● Also important for emotional processing.

● In people with PTSD, parts of the hippocampus are smaller, possibly due to reduced growth of new neurons.

● Treatments (medication or therapy) can improve symptoms and even increase hippocampal volume.

Universal Facial Expressions, Facial Feedback Hypothesis

Facial Expression and Recognition of Emotions

1. Cultural Display Rules • Different cultures have rules about when and how emotions can be shown.

- Example:

• U.S. → People show negative emotions (fear, anger, disgust) both alone and with others. • Japan → People show negative emotions only when alone.

• Cultures that value social harmony often encourage suppressing emotions until the right response is clear.

2. Gender Differences • Research on gender and emotion is mixed. • Some evidence suggests men and women may difer in how they regulate emotions, though findings are not consistent.

3. ____________ • Despite cultural diferences, facial expressions of emotion are universal. • Even blind individuals display the same expressions, showing they are innate. • Charles Darwin first suggested this idea in 1872. • Seven universal emotions with distinct facial expressions:

1. Happiness

2. Surprise

3. Sadness

4. Fear

5. Disgust

6. Contempt

7. Anger

4. ____________ • Facial expressions can influence emotions. • Example: Smiling can make you feel happier. • Research shows Botox (which paralyzes facial muscles) can reduce depression by limiting frowning.

5. Body Language and Other Cues • Emotions are also expressed through voice tone, behavior, and body language. • People are highly sensitive to these cues, even if they don’t consciously notice them.