science as a belief system

• Many sociologists see modern science as a product of what?

• Some sociologists, such as s_____ t____, argue that it has u___ religion by changing the what

• Many sociologists see modern science as a product of the process of that began with the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century.

• Some sociologists, such as secularisation theorists, argue that it has undermined religion by changing the way we think and how we see the world.

the impact of science

• Science has had an enormous impact on s____ over the last few centuries.

• Its achievements in m____ have e____ many f___ d____.

• Many b_____ f____ of daily life today - t_____, c____, w___ and l____ - would be u____ to our r___ a____ due to s____ and t____ d___.

• Perhaps most strikingly, science and technology have revolutionised e____ p____ and raised what? to previously undreamt of heights.

• This success has led to a w____ 'f____ in s___' - a belief that it can 'd___ the g__'.

the impact of science

• Science has had an enormous impact on society over the last few centuries.

• Its achievements in medicine have eradicated many fatal diseases.

• Many basic features of daily life today - transport, communications, work and leisure - would be unrecognisable to our recent ancestors due to scientific and technological development.

• Perhaps most strikingly, science and technology have revolutionised economic productivity and raised our standard of living to previously undreamt of heights.

• This success has led to a widespread 'faith in science' - a belief that it can 'deliver the goods'.

the impact of science

• Why has the faith in science been dimmed recently?

• P____, g____ h__ and w____ of m___ d___ are as much a product of s____ and t____ as are s____ f___, 'w____ d___' and the internet.

• While science may have helped to p___ us from n___ d___ such as d____ and f____, it has created its own 'm____ r___' that increasingly t____ the planet. e.g c___ c____ and d____

the impact of science

• More recently, this faith in science has been somewhat dimmed by a recognition that science may cause problems as well as solve them.

• Pollution, global heating and weapons of mass destruction are as much a product of science and technology as are space flight, 'wonder drugs' and the internet.

• While science may have helped to protect us from natural dangers such as disease and famine, it has created its own 'manufactured risks' that increasingly threaten the planet. e.g climate change and deforestation

the impact of science

• whether science produces p___ r____ (like c___ d___) or n____ o___ (like p____), both outcomes show science’s unique ability to do what? — this i____ s_____ is what s____ i____ a____ from other belief systems.

•   science enables us to e____, p____ and c____ the world in a way that n___-s____ or p_____ belief systems cannot do.

the impact of science

• whether science produces positive results (like curing diseases) or negative ones (like pollution), both outcomes show science’s unique ability to produce powerful knowledge that can shape and change the world — this intellectual strength is what sets it apart from other belief systems.

•   science enables us to explain, predict and control the world in a way that non-scientific or prescientific belief systems cannot do.

open belief systems

•  Many ask what question about science ? 

• According to K____ P____ (1959), science is an 'open' belief system where every scientist's theories are open to what 3 things 

• Science is governed by the principle of falsificationism →describe this process 

• If the e___ from an experiment or observation c____ a theory and shows it to be f_____, the theory can be d___ and the search for a b___ e____ can begin.

• In science, knowledge-claims either live or die how ? 

open belief systems

•  Many ask the question of “Why has science been successful in explaining and controlling the world?”

• According to Karl Popper (1959), science is an 'open' belief system where every scientist's theories are open to scrutiny, criticism and testing by others.

• Science is governed by the principle of falsificationism →scientists set out to try and falsify existing theories, deliberately seeking evidence that would disprove them.

• If the evidence from an experiment or observation contradicts a theory and shows it to be false, the theory can be discarded and the search for a better explanation can begin.

• In science, knowledge-claims live or die by the evidence.

open belief systems

• In Popper's view, what enables scientific understanding of the world to grow.

• Scientific knowledge is cumulative - what does this mean?

• What did Sir Isaac Newton say?

open belief systems

• In Popper's view, discarding falsified knowledge-claims is what enables scientific understanding of the world to grow.

• Scientific knowledge is cumulative - it builds on the achievements of previous scientists to develop a greater and greater understanding of the world around us.

• As Sir Isaac Newton, put it, 'If I have been able to see so far, it is because I have stood on the shoulders of giants' - that is, on the discoveries of his predecessors.

open belief systems

• However, despite the achievements of great scientists such as Newton, no theory is ever to be taken as definitely true - why is this?

• For example, for c___ it was held to be true that the s____ r___ around the e____, until C____ demonstrated that this knowledge-claim was false

• In Popper's view, the key thing about scientific knowledge is that it is not s____ or a____ t___ - it can always be q____, c____, t____ and perhaps shown to be f____.

• 
  

• However, despite the achievements of great scientists such as Newton, no theory is ever to be taken as definitely true - there is always a possibility that someone will produce evidence to disprove it.

• For example, for centuries it was held to be true that the sun revolved around the earth, until Copernicus demonstrated that this knowledge-claim was false

• In Popper's view, the key thing about scientific knowledge is that it is not sacred or absolute truth - it can always be questioned, criticised, tested and perhaps shown to be false.

• 
  

The CUDOS norms 

• Popper’s falsification theory explains what. But it doesn’t answer what

• So it’s not just that people started f____ f___ — it’s that certain s___ and c___ c___ (like P___ values in E___) encouraged science to become a r____, o___ activity.

The CUDOS norms 

• Popper’s falsification theory explains the method of science — how scientific knowledge grows when old ideas are tested and replaced. But it doesn’t answer how science as an institution suddenly grew so quickly in modern times, not earlier.

• So it’s not just that people started falsifying faster — it’s that certain social and cultural conditions (like Puritan values in England) encouraged science to become a respected, organised activity.

The CUDOS norms 

• The functionalist M____ (1973, 2007) argues that science can only thrive as a major social institution how?

• He argues that this first occurred in E___ as a result of the v___ and a____ created by the P___ R____, especially P____

• The Puritans belief that the study of n____ led to an a____ of G___ works, encouraged them to e___.

• Puritanism also stressed s____ w____ and they were a___by the fact that science could produce t_____ i____ to i____ the c____ of life.

• why did the new institution of science also receive support from economic and military institutions?

The CUDOS norms 

• The functionalist Merton (1973, 2007) argues that science can only thrive as a major social institution if it receives support from other institutions and values.

• He argues that this first occurred in England as a result of the values and attitudes created by the Protestant Reformation, especially Puritanism

• The Puritans belief that the study of nature led to an appreciation of God's works, encouraged them to experiment.

• Puritanism also stressed social welfare and they were attracted by the fact that science could produce technological inventions to improve the conditions of life.

• The new institution of science also received support from economic and military institutions as the value of the practical applications of science became obvious in areas such as mining, navigation and weaponry.

The CUDOS norms 

• Merton also argues, like Popper, that science as an i_____ or o____ s___ a____ needs an 'e____' or set of n____ that make scientists act in ways that serve the goal of what

• He identifies four such norms, known as 'CUDOS' - what does each letter stand for ?

The CUDOS norms 

• Merton also argues, like Popper, that science as an institution or organised social activity needs an 'ethos' or set of norms that make scientists act in ways that serve the goal of increasing scientific knowledge

• He identifies four such norms, known as 'CUDOS' :

1. Communism

2. Universalism

3. Disinteredness

4. Organised Scepticism

The CUDOS norms 

Communism

• Scientific knowledge is not what?

• Scientists must s___ it with the s___ c____ (by publishing their f___); otherwise, k___ cannot g___.

Universalism

• The truth or falsity of scientific knowledge is judged how?

•  science judges ideas by e____, not by who makes them — for example, a good experiment is valid whether it’s done by a f____ p____ or a s___.

Disinterestedness

• This means being committed to what?

• why does having to publish their findings makes it harder for scientists to practise fraud? 

• scientists shouldn’t be motivated by what? - they should genuinely care about discovering the t___.

Organised Scepticism

• No knowledge-claim is regarded as 's____'.

• Every idea is open to q_____, c____ and o____ i____

The CUDOS norms 

Communism

• Scientific knowledge is not private property.

• Scientists must share it with the scientific community (by publishing their findings); otherwise, knowledge cannot grow.

Universalism

• The truth or falsity of scientific knowledge is judged by universal, objective criteria and not by the particular race, sex etc of the scientist who produces it.

•  science judges ideas by evidence, not by who makes them — for example, a good experiment is valid whether it’s done by a famous professor or a student.

Disinterestedness

• This means being committed to discovering knowledge for its own sake.

• Having to publish their findings (with specific methods and data) makes it harder for scientists to practise fraud, since it enables others to check their claims.

• scientists shouldn’t be motivated by personal gain (like money or fame) - they should genuinely care about discovering the truth.

Organised Scepticism

• No knowledge-claim is regarded as 'sacred'.

• Every idea is open to questioning, criticism and objective investigation.

Closed belief systems

• science appears to d___ fundamentally from traditional r____ b___ s____.

• While scientific knowledge is p____, open to c____ and potentially d____, religion claims to have s____, p_____ knowledge of the a_____ t___.

• Its knowledge is literally s____ and religious organisations claim to hold it on God's d_____ a___.

• This means that it cannot be c____ - and those who do so may be p___ for their h__.

• It also means that religious knowledge does not c___ - how could it, if it already has the absolute truth? Unlike scientific knowledge, therefore, it is f ____ and does not g___. 

• Therefore it is a what?

Closed belief systems

• science appears to differ fundamentally from traditional religious belief systems.

• While scientific knowledge is provisional, open to challenge and potentially disprovable, religion claims to have special, perfect knowledge of the absolute truth.

• Its knowledge is literally sacred and religious organisations claim to hold it on God's divine authority.

• This means that it cannot be challenged - and those who do so may be punished for their heresy.

• It also means that religious knowledge does not change - how could it, if it already has the absolute truth? Unlike scientific knowledge, therefore, it is fixed and does not grow. 

• Therefore it is a closed belief system 

Closed belief systems

• R___ H___ (1973) distinguishes between open and closed belief systems

• Like Popper, he sees science as what? - one where knowledge-claims are open to c____ and can be d____ by t___

• By contrast, what belief systems are closed?

• That is, they make knowledge-claims that cannot be s____ o____.

• Whenever its fundamental beliefs are t____, a closed belief system has a number of d___ or 'get-out clauses' that r____ the system and prevent it from being d___ - at least in the e___ of its b___- for example, when prayers aren’t answered - what might religion/its believers might say?

• Another example is w____ b___ (next flashcards)

Closed belief systems

• Robin Horton (1973) distinguishes between open and closed belief systems

• Like Popper, he sees science as an open belief system - one where knowledge-claims are open to criticism and can be disproved by testing

• By contrast, religion, magic and many other belief systems are closed.

• That is, they make knowledge-claims that cannot be successfully overturned.

• Whenever its fundamental beliefs are threatened, a closed belief system has a number of devices or 'get-out clauses' that reinforce the system and prevent it from being disproved - at least in the eyes of its believers- for example, when prayers aren’t answered, believers might say it’s because “God works in mysterious ways” or that their faith was being tested.

• Another  example is witchcraft beliefs (next flashcards)

Witchcraft among the Azande

E____ E____-P___ (1936) anthropological study of the A___ people of the S___ illustrates Horton's idea of a s___-r__, closed belief system.

Witchcraft among the Azande

Edward Evans-Pritchard's (1936) anthropological study of the Azande people of the Sudan illustrates Horton's idea of a self-reinforcing, closed belief system.

Witchcraft among the Azande

• The Azande believe that n___ e___ have n____ c___.For example, →” the snake bit me because I a___ s____ on it as I was walking down the path”

• However, the Azande do not believe in c____ or c___ → “I have walked down the same path a t____ t___ and never been b___ b___ - so w__ n___? “

• Thus, when m____ befalls the Azande, they may explain it in terms of w___.

• “Someone - probably a j____ neighbour - is practising w___ against me.”

Witchcraft among the Azande

• The Azande believe that natural events have natural causes.For example, →” the snake bit me because I accidentally stepped on it as I was walking down the path”

• However, the Azande do not believe in coincidence or chance → “I have walked down the same path a thousand times and never been bitten before - so why now? “

• Thus, when misfortune befalls the Azande, they may explain it in terms of witchcraft.

• “Someone - probably a jealous neighbour - is practising witchcraft against me.”

Witchcraft among the Azande

• In such cases, the injured party may make an a____ against the s____ witch and the matter may be resolved by how?

•  Here, the prince's diviner will administer a p____ (called 'b___) to a c___, at the same time asking the benge whether the accused is the source of the witchcraft and telling it to kill the c___ if the answer is 'Yes'.

• if the chicken dies, the sufferer can go and p____ d____ the w____ to stop

• This is usually enough to end the problem, because the Azande regard witchcraft as what?, and it is believed possible that the witch is doing harm u____ and u____.

• This allows the accused to proclaim their s____ and h____, to a____ and p___ that there will be no further b___.

Witchcraft among the Azande

• In such cases, the injured party may make an accusation against the suspected witch and the matter may be resolved by consulting the prince's magic poison oracle

•  Here, the prince's diviner will administer a potion (called 'benge) to a chicken, at the same time asking the benge whether the accused is the source of the witchcraft and telling it to kill the chicken if the answer is 'Yes'. I

• f the chicken dies, the sufferer can go and publicly demand the witchcraft to stop

• This is usually enough to end the problem, because the Azande regard witchcraft as a psychic power coming from a substance located in the witch's intestines, and it is believed possible that the witch is doing harm unintentionally and unconsciously.

• This allows the accused to proclaim their surprise and horror, to apologise and promise that there will be no further bewitching.

Witchcraft among the Azande

• Evans-Pritchard argues that this belief system performs u___ s___ f___.

• It not only c___ the an___ and p___ g___ from f___; it encourages neighbours to behave c____ towards one another to reduce the risk of an a___.

• Also, since the Azande believe witchcraft to be h____, children have a vested interest in keeping their parents in line, since a successful accusation against the parent also damages the child's r___.

• As such, the belief system is an important s_____ c___ mechanism ensuring c___ and c___.

Witchcraft among the Azande

• Evans-Pritchard argues that this belief system performs useful social functions.

• It not only clears the air and prevents grudges from festering; it encourages neighbours to behave considerately towards one another to reduce the risk of an accusation.

• Also, since the Azande believe witchcraft to be hereditary, children have a vested interest in keeping their parents in line, since a successful accusation against the parent also damages the child's reputation.

• As such, the belief system is an important social control mechanism ensuring conformity and cooperation.

Witchcraft among the Azande

• As Evans-Pritchard points out, this belief system is h___ r___ to c____ - that is, it is a closed system that cannot be overturned by the evidence.

• For example, nonbelievers might argue what, this would be a decisive test showing that the oracle did not work.

• However, for the Azande, such outcome would just prove that it was not g___ b__.

• As Evans-Pritchard says, 'The very fact of the fowl dying proves to them its badness'. Thus, the 'test' doesn't disprove the belief system in the eyes of the believers; instead, it actually reinforces it. The believers are trapped within their own 'idiom of belief' or way of thinking.

• Because they accept the system's basic assumptions (such as the existence of witchcraft), they cannot challenge it.

Witchcraft among the Azande

• As Evans-Pritchard points out, this belief system is highly resistant to challenges - that is, it is a closed system that cannot be overturned by the evidence.

• For example, nonbelievers might argue that if the benge killed the chicken without the diviner first addressing the potion, this would be a decisive test showing that the oracle did not work.

• However, for the Azande, such outcome would just prove that it was not good benge.

• As Evans-Pritchard says, 'The very fact of the fowl dying proves to them its badness'. Thus, the 'test' doesn't disprove the belief system in the eyes of the believers; instead, it actually reinforces it. The believers are trapped within their own 'idiom of belief' or way of thinking.

• Because they accept the system's basic assumptions (such as the existence of witchcraft), they cannot challenge it.

Self-sustaining beliefs

Polanyi (1958) argues that all belief systems have three devices to sustain themselves in the face of apparently contradictory evidence - what are the three devices ?

Self-sustaining beliefs

P____ (1958) argues that all belief systems have three devices to sustain themselves in the face of apparently contradictory evidence:

1.  Circularity - Each idea in the system is explained in terms of another idea within the system and so on, round and round

2. Subsidiary explanations-  For example, if the oracle fails, it may be explained away as due to the incorrect use of the benge.

3. Denial of legitimacy to rivals-  Belief systems reject alternative worldviews by refusing to grant any legitimacy to their basic assumptions. For example, creationism rejects outright the evolutionists' knowledge-claim that the earth is billions of years old, and therefore that species have gradually evolved rather than all having been created

Science as a closed system

• Despite P___ view of science as o____ and c___, some other writers argue that science itself can be seen as a what?

• For example, P__ argues that afff belief systems reject what? science is n____ f___, as the case of D____ V___ indicates : 

• In 19___, I____ V____ book W____ in C_____ proposed a new theory about what that challenged key scientific ideas?

• Instead of t____ his theory, scientists dismissed it o___, boycotted his publisher, and p____ those who s____ him—showing science acting as a closed belief system rather than an open one.

Science as a closed system

• Despite Popper's view of science as open and critical, some other writers argue that science itself can be seen as a self-sustaining or closed system of belief.

• For example, Polanyi argues that all belief systems reject fundamental challenges to their knowledge-claims - science is no different, as the case of Dr Velikovsky indicates : 

• In 1950, Immanuel Velikovsky’s book Worlds in Collision proposed a new theory about Earth’s origins that challenged key scientific ideas.

• Instead of testing his theory, scientists dismissed it outright, boycotted his publisher, and punished those who supported him—showing science acting as a closed belief system rather than an open one.

Science as a closed system

• One explanation for scientists' refusal even to consider challenges comes from a h___ of s___, T___ K___ (1970).

• Kuhn argues that a mature science such as what? is based on a set of shared assumptions - what does he call this?

• The p____ tells scientists what r____ is like, what p____ to s___ and what m___ and e___ to use, what will count as e____, and even what answers they should find when they conduct research.

• For most of the time, scientists are engaged in what? which Kuhn likens to puzzle solving - explain this?

• Those who do so successfully are rewarded how?

Science as a closed system

• One explanation for scientists' refusal even to consider challenges comes from a historian of science, Thomas Kuhn (1970).

• Kuhn argues that a mature science such as geology, biology or physics is based on a set of shared assumptions that he calls a paradigm.

• The paradigm tells scientists what reality is like, what problems to study and what methods and equipment to use, what will count as evidence, and even what answers they should find when they conduct research.

• For most of the time, scientists are engaged in normal science, which Kuhn likens to puzzle solving - the paradigm lays down the broad outlines and the scientists' job is to carefully fill in the details.

• Those who do so successfully are rewarded with bigger research grants, professorships, Nobel Prizes and so on

Science as a closed system

• Scientific education and training is a process of being socialised into what? , and a successful career depends on what?

• For these reasons, any scientist who c____ the f____ assumptions of the paradigm, as Velikovsky did, is likely to be r____ and h____ out of the p___

• ndeed, others in the scientific community will no longer regard them as a s__ at all.

• what is the only exception to where scientists become open to radically new ideas?

Science as a closed system

• Scientific education and training is a process of being socialised into faith in the truth of the paradigm, and a successful career depends on working within the paradigm.

• For these reasons, any scientist who challenges the fundamental assumptions of the paradigm, as Velikovsky did, is likely to be ridiculed and hounded out of the profession

• ndeed, others in the scientific community will no longer regard them as a scientist at all.

• The only exceptions to this are during one of the rare periods that Kuhn describes as a scientific revolution, when faith in the truth of the paradigm has already been undermined by an accumulation of anomalies - results that the paradigm cannot account for - Only then do scientists become open to radically new ideas.

The sociology of scientific knowledge- Interpretivists  

• how have Interpretivist sociologists developed Kuhn's ideas further. ? 

• That is, rather than being objective truth, it is c___ by s___ g__ using the resources available to them.

• In the case of science, scientific 'facts' - those things that scientists take to be true and real - are the product of s____ t___ or p__ that tell them what they should expect to see, and of the particular instruments they use

• Thus, K____ K___-C___ (1981; 1999) argues that the invention of new instruments, such as telescopes or microscopes, permits scientists to do what?

• Similarly, she points out that what scientists study in the laboratory is highly 'c___' and far removed from what?

The sociology of scientific knowledge- Interpretivists  

• Interpretivist sociologists have developed Kuhn's ideas further. They argue that all knowledge - including scientific knowledge - is socially constructed.

• That is, rather than being objective truth, it is created by social groups using the resources available to them.

• In the case of science, scientific 'facts' - those things that scientists take to be true and real - are the product of shared theories or paradigms that tell them what they should expect to see, and of the particular instruments they use

• Thus, Karin Knorr-Cetina (1981; 1999) argues that the invention of new instruments, such as telescopes or microscopes, permits scientists to make new observations and construct or 'fabricate' new facts.

• Similarly, she points out that what scientists study in the laboratory is highly 'constructed' and far removed from the natural world that they are supposedly studying.

The sociology of scientific knowledge- Interpretivists  

• According to the ethnomethodologist S___ W____ (1992), scientists are engaged in the same process of.'m____ s___' or interpreting the w___ as everyone else.

• When confronted by 'e____' from their observations and e___, they have to decide what it means. They do so by devising and applying theories or explanations, but they then have to persuade others to accept their interpretation.

• For example, In 1967, Cambridge scientists discovered whatand jokingly labelled them ‘LGM’ for ‘Little Green Men’. Realising this explanation wouldn’t be accepted, they reinterpreted the signals as coming from a new type of star, later called pulsars. Woolgar uses this to show that scientific ‘facts’ are socially constructed through interpretation and agreement, not objective truths.

The sociology of scientific knowledge- Interpretivists  

• According to the ethnomethodologist Steve Woolgar (1992), scientists are engaged in the same process of.'making sense' or interpreting the world as everyone else.

• When confronted by 'evidence' from their observations and experiments, they have to decide what it means. They do so by devising and applying theories or explanations, but they then have to persuade others to accept their interpretation.

• For example, In 1967, Cambridge scientists discovered unusual radio signals and jokingly labelled them ‘LGM’ for ‘Little Green Men’. Realising this explanation wouldn’t be accepted, they reinterpreted the signals as coming from a new type of star, later called pulsars. Woolgar uses this to show that scientific ‘facts’ are socially constructed through interpretation and agreement, not objective truths.

Marxism, feminism and postmodernism

• Other critical perspectives such as Marxism and feminism see scientific knowledge as far from p___ t___.

• instead, they regard it as serving the interests of dominant groups - who is this in the case of Marxists? and who is this in the case of feminists?

• Thus, many advances in supposedly 'pure' science have been driven by the need of c____ for certain types of knowledge.

• For example, theoretical work on ____ (the study of the path followed by objects under the influence of gravity) was driven by the need to what?

• Similarly, biological ideas have been used to justify both d_ and colonial expansion. In this respect, science can be seen as a form of i___

Marxism, feminism and postmodernism

• Other critical perspectives such as Marxism and feminism see scientific knowledge as far from pure truth.

• instead, they regard it as serving the interests of dominant groups - the ruling class in the case of Marxists, and men in the case of feminists.

• Thus, many advances in supposedly 'pure' science have been driven by the need of capitalism for certain types of knowledge.

• For example, theoretical work on ballistics (the study of the path followed by objects under the influence of gravity) was driven by the need to develop new weaponry.

• Similarly, biological ideas have been used to justify both male domination and colonial expansion. In this respect, science can be seen as a form of ideology

Marxism, feminism and postmodernism

• Postmodernists also reject what?

• In the view of L____ (19__), for example, science is one of a number of m____-n____ or 'b__ s___' that falsely claim to possess the truth.

• Other meta-narratives include what?

• In L____ view, science falsely claims to find the truth about how the world works as a means of progress to a better society, whereas in reality, science is just one more 'd____' or way of thinking that is used to d____ people.

• Similarly, rather like Marxists, some postmodernists argue that science has become technoscience, simply serving c_____ i____ by producing commodities for profit.

Marxism, feminism and postmodernism

• Postmodernists also reject the knowledge-claims of science to have 'the truth'.

• In the view of Lyotard (1984), for example, science is one of a number of meta-narratives or 'big stories' that falsely claim to possess the truth.

• Other meta-narratives include religion or even psychoanalysis.

• In Lyotard's view, science falsely claims to find the truth about how the world works as a means of progress to a better society, whereas in reality, science is just one more 'discourse' or way of thinking that is used to dominate people.

• Similarly, rather like Marxists, some postmodernists argue that science has become technoscience, simply serving capitalist interests by producing commodities for profit.