Psych Unit 3

Developmental psychology

The branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social-emotional development across the lifespan.

Cross-sectional study

A research study that compares people of different ages at one point in time.

Longitudinal study

A research study that follows and retests the same people over time.

Teratogens

Agents, such as certain chemicals and viruses, that can harm prenatal development.

Habituation

Decreased responsiveness after repeated stimulation.

Maturation

Biological growth that enables orderly behavioral change, which can be adjusted by experience or slowed by adverse childhood experiences.

Critical period

An optimal early period when certain experiences support typical development.

Fine motor skills

Physical abilities that involve the coordination of small muscles.

Gross motor skills

Physical abilities that involve large muscles or the whole body.

Infantile amnesia

Having little or no conscious recall for most events before about ages 4–5, associated with immature brain areas.

Sex

Biologically influenced characteristics.

Gender

Attitudes, feelings, and behaviors associated with biological sex in a culture.

Primary sex characteristics

Body structures that make reproduction possible.

Secondary sex characteristics

Non-reproductive traits associated with biological sex.

Spermarche

The first ejaculation in males.

Menarche

The first menstrual period in females.

Intersex

Having male and female biological sexual characteristics at birth.

Klinefelter syndrome

A genetic condition in males who have two or more X chromosomes and a Y chromosome.

Turner syndrome

A genetic condition in females who have only one X chromosome.

Gender role

Culturally expected behaviors and traits for a specific gender.

Gender identity

An individual's personal sense of their gender.

Gender typing

The acquisition of traditional masculine or feminine traits.

Androgyny

The blending of psychological characteristics associated with both males and females.

Relational aggression

Behavior that aims to harm relationships or social standing.

Asexuality

The state of experiencing no sexual attraction.

Sensorimotor stage

Piaget's stage characterized by sensory/motor actions and developing object permanence.

Preoperational stage

Piaget's stage characterized by symbols, mental images, egocentrism, and difficulty with conservation.

Concrete operational stage

Piaget's stage where an individual understands conservation but struggles with abstract ideas.

Formal operational stage

Piaget's stage characterized by abstract, hypothetical, and logical thinking.

Phoneme

The smallest sound unit in language.

Morpheme

The smallest unit of language that carries meaning.

Grammar

A system of rules that enables communication.

Aphasia

Language impairment, often caused by damage to left-hemisphere language areas such as Broca’s or Wernicke’s area.

Linguistic determinism

The hypothesis proposing that language determines thought.

Linguistic relativism

The hypothesis proposing that language influences thought.

Ecological systems theory

A framework describing five nested levels of environmental influence: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.

Stranger anxiety

A form of distress that commonly appears in infants around 8 months of age when encountering unfamiliar people.

Attachment

An emotional tie shown by seeking closeness to caregivers and displaying distress at separation.

Imprinting

An attachment process formed by certain animals during an early-life critical period.

Strange Situation

An observational procedure designed to examine a child's behavior in an unfamiliar setting as a caregiver leaves and returns.

Self-concept

An individual's thoughts and feelings about who they are.

Authoritarian parenting

A parenting style that imposes strict obedience.

Permissive parenting

A parenting style that places few demands and limits on children.

Neglectful parenting

A parenting style characterized by low responsiveness and few demands.

Authoritative parenting

A parenting style characterized by clear rules combined with responsiveness and open discussion.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers an unlearned response (such as food triggering salivation).

Unconditioned response (UCR)

In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus (such as salivation to food).

Neutral stimulus (NS)

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before learning (such as a bell before conditioning).

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

In classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that triggers a conditioned response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned response (CR)

In classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus (such as salivation to a bell).

Extinction

In classical conditioning, the diminishing of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus no longer predicts the unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance of a weakened conditioned response following a pause.

Generalization

The tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to trigger a conditioned response.

Discrimination

Learning to respond differently to the specific conditioned stimulus compared to other stimuli.

Positive reinforcement

An operant procedure that adds a pleasant stimulus to increase a behavior.

Negative reinforcement

An operant procedure that removes or reduces an unpleasant stimulus to increase a behavior.

Fixed ratio schedule

A reinforcement schedule that provides reinforcement after a set number of responses.

Variable ratio schedule

A reinforcement schedule that provides reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed interval schedule

A reinforcement schedule that provides reinforcement after a set amount of time.

Variable interval schedule

A reinforcement schedule that provides reinforcement after an unpredictable amount of time.

Positive punishment

An operant procedure that adds an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Negative punishment

An operant procedure that removes a rewarding stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Latent learning

Learning that occurs without an obvious demonstration until there is an incentive to show it.

Cognitive map

A mental representation of the layout of one's environment.

Insight learning

A sudden realization of a problem's solution without direct rewards.

Observational learning

Learning that takes place by watching others.

Modeling

The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

Vicarious conditioning

Learning to anticipate consequences by observing the experiences of others.

Mirror neurons

Neurons that may fire both when performing an action and when observing another individual perform the same action.

Prosocial behavior

Positive, constructive, and helpful behavior.

Antisocial behavior

Harmful and destructive behavior.

Developmental psychology

The study of physical, cognitive, and social-emotional development across the lifespan.

Cross-sectional study

A research method that compares individuals of different age groups at the same point in time.

Longitudinal study

A research design that follows and retests the same participants over time.

Teratogens

Agents, such as harmful chemicals, that can harm an embryo or fetus during prenatal development.

Rooting reflex

A newborn reflex that involves turning the head toward a touch near the mouth.

Habituation

Decreasing responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated stimulation.

Maturation

Biological growth processes that enable orderly behavioral changes relatively uninfluenced by formal practice.

Critical period

An optimal early period when experience is needed for typical development.

Infantile amnesia

The lack of conscious recall for most events from very early childhood.

Prefrontal cortex

A brain area that continues developing during adolescence, lagging behind emotional systems, and supports planning and impulse control.

Sex

The biological characteristics used to define male, female, and intersex.

Secondary sex characteristics

Non-reproductive sexual traits that develop during puberty, such as the deepening of the voice.

Gender roles

Cultural expectations about how men and women should behave, such as expecting men to avoid showing sadness and women to be nurturing.

Anal stage

In Freud's psychosexual theory, the stage centered on toilet training and elimination.

Identity vs. role confusion

In Erikson's theory, the central psychosocial crisis of adolescence in which a person reflects on who they are and what direction their life should take.

Formal operational stage

Piaget's stage of cognitive development associated with the ability to understand abstract and hypothetical ideas.

Concrete operational stage

Piaget's stage of cognitive development associated with understanding conservation, such as recognizing that water volume remains the same when poured into a taller, thinner glass.

Phoneme

The smallest unit of sound in a language.

Attachment

An emotional tie shown by seeking closeness to a caregiver.

Conditioned response

In classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.

Conditioned stimulus

In classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response.

Extinction

In classical conditioning, the reduction or disappearance of a response when a conditioned stimulus is repeatedly sounded or presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous recovery

The unexpected reappearance of an extinguished response to a conditioned stimulus following a rest period.

Stimulus discrimination

In conditioning, learning to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar sounds by presenting the target stimulus with food and similar sounds without food.

Authoritative parenting

A parenting style characterized by setting clear limits, listening to the child's perspective, and explaining rules.

Negative reinforcement

Strengthening a behavior by removing, reducing, or avoiding an unpleasant stimulus, such as studying to stop parental reminders.

Negative punishment

Decreasing a behavior by removing a desirable stimulus or privilege, such as losing phone privileges after breaking a rule.

Fixed ratio schedule

A reinforcement schedule that provides a reward after a set, predictable number of responses, such as receiving a bonus after every 10 items assembled.

Variable ratio schedule

A reinforcement schedule that provides a reward after an unpredictable number of successful responses or attempts.