Chapter 8: Thinking and Intelligence

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering key terms, cognitive biases, heuristics, problem-solving strategies, and theories of intelligence from Chapter 8.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to pay attention to evidence that supports existing beliefs and ignore or downplay contradictory evidence (e.g., in voting).

Illusory correlation

The misperception that two events that happened at the same time by chance are somehow related (e.g., believing that wearing a certain outfit will bring money).

Thinking

The mental manipulation of analogies and symbolic representations of information.

Analogical representations

Pictures, visuals, or nonverbal mental representations that share some physical characteristics of objects.

Symbolic representations

Abstract representations of an object, such as words, emojis, or gestures, that do not have relationships to the physical qualities of the object (e.g., the word 'dog').

Mental Map

A mixture of analogical and symbolic representations used when thinking of a map.

Schemas

Mental structures containing information on how the world works (ideas, prior knowledge, and experience) that set up expectations, help make sense of surroundings, and allow quick recall of past situations.

Concepts

Mental representations that categorize objects, events, or ideas based on shared features.

Prototype

The best and 'most typical' example of a concept in nature possessing certain characteristics (e.g., fruit, dogs, safari animals, birds).

Exemplar

A 'clear-cut example' of a concept that judges category membership based on how closely an object relates to a familiar object (e.g., specific dog breeds or specific fruit).

Stereotypes

Generalizations of people, events, and objects that can be based on schemas.

Reasoning

Using information to determine whether a conclusion is valid.

Informal reasoning

Reasoning based on opinion, hearsay, and personal experience.

Formal reasoning

Reasoning that uses scientific methods and empirical evidence to obtain valid evidence.

Hindsight bias

The tendency to believe that one could have predicted or known something after the outcome is already known or after information becomes known.

Availability heuristic

A heuristic based on how easily information comes to mind regarding how common something is or regarding a problem.

Representative heuristic

A mental shortcut that involves placing people or objects into a category.

Affective heuristic

Making judgements based on current emotions.

Framing

The way information is presented, which affects how it is perceived and influences decisions, often in an optimistic way.

Decision making

The selection of the best alternatives among several options.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts that simplify and speed up the decision-making process.

Misinformation

Inaccurate information that is falsely believed; defined by van der Linden as 'demonstrably false or misleading, regardless of source or intention.'

Disinformation

Inaccurate information that is intentionally designed to confuse, mislead, or undermine thought (often operating through confirmation bias, repetition, and illusory correlation).

Bias blind spot

The phenomenon where an individual can identify the biases of others but fails to identify their own.

Illusion of explanatory depth

The belief that one understands a concept better than others.

Problem solving

Using knowledge to find a way towards goals and around obstacles.

Subgoals

Small goals set to lead toward larger goals.

Working backwards

A problem-solving strategy that begins at the end and works back to the initial state.

Analogy (in problem solving)

Using past problem solutions to solve current problems.

Insight

A sudden realization of the solution to a problem after one has stopped thinking about it.

Restructuring

Thinking about a problem in a new way, leading to an 'aha' moment.

Mental sets

Thinking differently about a situation by searching for new types of solutions that are better than the first.

Overcoming functional fixedness

Moving past the tendency to think only of the usual way to solve a specific problem by finding and using new ways to fix it.

Intelligence

A person's capacity to learn, reason, and solve important problems to adapt to the environment.

IQ (Intelligence Quotient)

A score that is based on one general factor of intelligence.

General intelligence

Common factors that contribute to performance in any intellectual task.

Fluid intelligence

Intelligence reflecting the ability to process information quickly and in complex circumstances.

Crystalized intelligence

Intelligence reflecting knowledge gained through experience and the ability to use that knowledge to solve problems.

Creativity

The ability to come up with novel ideas that are useful and different.

Divergent thinking

The ability to generate multiple different solutions or ideas for a problem.

Convergent thinking

The ability to generate the best or most correct solution to a problem.

Triarchic Theory

Steinberg's theory proposing that people possess three types of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical.

Analytical intelligence

Described as 'the brains' in the Triarchic Theory; the ability to problem solve, complete analogies, and provide solutions to problems.

Practical intelligence

Described as 'the streets' in the Triarchic Theory; the ability to deal with everyday tasks, act as effective leaders, and show good judgement of character.

Heritability

The proportion of the total variability of a trait in a person that is due to genetics.

Psychometric tests

Standardized tests designed to assess various aspects of intelligence.

Reliability

The degree to which a test result for any given person is stable and consistent over time.

Validity

The measurement of what a test is actually intended to measure.

Achievement tests

Tests of 'what you know' that assess current skill and knowledge.

Aptitude tests

Tests aimed 'to know new information' by assessing an individual's ability to learn new information.

IQ tests

Tests designed to measure general intelligence for any circumstance.

Working memory

A cognitive ability involved in keeping information in your mind as you manipulate it.

Emotional intelligence

The ability to understand emotional language, recognize other people's emotions, manage your own emotions, and use your emotions to guide thoughts and actions.