ASIAN 260

Neolithic period

use of polished stone tools, associated with agriculture, pottery, nomadic life, and local villages, relatively more egalitarian than later societies. There has been some debate over weather Chinese people descended from either one single neolithic culture, the Yangshao, or multiple, including Dawenkou, Majiabang, and Hemudu cultures.

Bronze age

~3000BCE, use of bronze is prevalent, more complex and organized societies, the beginning of powerful states and increasing inequality. The Interactive spheres thesis claims that there was convergence among different cultures over time around this time, however there is also evidence of continuing heterogeneity form much later.

Yangshao

Early neolithic culture in the north china plains, millet farmers, red and brown pottery. The Nuclear Area theory claims that Chinese civilization descended from a single culture, the Yangshao, and the diffusion of that culture can be tracked through materials, such as their red and brown painted pottery.

Sanxingdui

Archeological site in southwest China, has evidence of distinct metal and artistic traditions long after 3000BCE, provides some evidence against the interactive spheres hypothesis, or at least the date of convergence.

Oracle bones

Records of divination by Shang kings, provides a historical account of the Shang dynasty, some say it is the oldest known records of a Chinese writing system and is the foundation for modern Hanzi. They also provide insights into the rites and rituals of the Shang as well as ancestor worship.

Xia

China’s first dynasty, founded by Emperor Yu, made the throne hereditary by passing it to his son Qi, the first dynastic model. Sometimes not considered a real dynasty due to a lack of archaeological proof and written records.

Shang

China’s first historically verified and second dynasty, middle of bronze age china, oracle bones date back to this time, northern plains area

Zhou

After the Shang dynasty, had a Spring and Autumn period where the realm fractured into competing states, and had the Warring States period, which was an era of intense warfare that eventually gave rise to 7 major powers before reunification in Qin. Those who adhered to li (rituals), culture, or language, etc. were considered Zhou or Huaxia, and the rest were “others.” Ethnic origin is less important.

Warring States

A time during the Zhou of intense warfare, ended with 7 main states, people developed new philosophies fo rliving and governing, led to the “hundred schools of thought” (confucians, mohists, daoists, legalists)

Yi, Man, Rong, Di

Non-Chinese speaking groups during the Zhou dynasty were called people of the field rather than people of the state, called the four barbarians based on their directions, thought of as others due to language barrier, rather than ethnicity

Qin

First imperial dynasty, unified the country under a single government after the Warring States period, located in the northwest originally. Built great wall to keep out the barbarians, highly centralized system. When Qin conquered, it was good for the Qin, but not necessarily Zhongguo as those now under Qin rule were once very recently “barbarians”

Han

Founded after a civil war, included the debate on salt and iron(Xiongnu raided the borders, previously, Han gave them gifts, but emperor Wu wanted to be more agressive and made new policies, literati/confucians vs sang hongyang, literati win). a tributary system that was sinocentric—assumed China was the only/most “civilized” place, Silk Road. Fall: eunuchs become more powerful,

Sima Jin

Prince of western Jin dynasty, son founded the eastern Jin

Tuoba Wei/Northern Wei

First conquest dynasty, Tuoba is a clan of the xianbei group, adopted chinese script and buercracy, considered sinicized, forbade xianbei clothes, language, names, encouraged intermarriage. Unified northern China and launched Northern and Southern dynasties era. Still seen as a barbarian group by some, they claimed the real China is in the south (identitiy is ethnic, even though they were sinicized, they were still barbarians)

Sui

Dynasty before the Tang, rulers were largey a military aristocracy, incorporated many ethnic groups, the rulers were of mixed ancestry; groups who were sinicized, established new capital at chang’an, downfall: worsening relations with Turks and peasent uprisings

Tang

Capital Chang’an was a multicultural metropolis, many aspects of foreign culture were celebrated, had trouble controlling the northwest and relied heavily on turkish troops (Uighurs), an Lushan rebellion, afterwards politics became more important to allegiance and identity, more meritocratic —> descent less important to identity

Northern Song

Conquested all independent kingdoms after five dynasties and ten kingdoms period, not as much expansion than Han and Tang, dramatic advancements in art, culture, technology, and politics, status linked to education and money, introduced a meritocratic examination system, multiple claims of “son of heaven” from other areas

Southern Song

The JIn invaded North China and thus the Southern Song was created, lots of anger and a sense of loss over the north, also some opinions that the Jin had received the mandate of heaven, especially since they were sinicized and ruling in Chinese style, brought back ideas of a bounded empire vs an empire of value,

Western Xia/Xi Xia

shortly after mongol conquest began, then mongols took over XiXia, coexisted with the Song, Liao, and Jin dynasties, first major chinese state to be conquered by Ghengis Khan, Tanguts (adopted some Chinese policies, but kept their language and writing)

Liao

Khitans, ruled before northern Song, women held military posts, could divorce, and often selected their husbands, Norther Song often payed tribute to them, Song allied with Jin against them, but then Jin invaded Song.

Jurchen Jin

Song allied with them against Liao, Jin then invaded Song, most Jin soldiers were Chinese and they took over Northern China

The Yellow Emperor Huangdi

part of the five sovereigns, united tribes in the Yellow River valley and formed early Huaxia nation, celebrated as a sage-king and a Taoist figure, created the first writing system with Cangjie

Yao, Shun, and Yu

Legendary sage-kings, mencius mentioned Shun was a barbarian but could still become a sage, anyone could be a sage, Yu became founder of the Xia, all were known for their benevolence, Shun was known for his filial piety

Confucius

Philosopher, main beliefs in filiel piety, eveyrone has a role, humaness, benevolence and righteousness.

Mencius

Confucian scholar, believed everyone has the same innate potential, and through cultivation and hard work anyone can become a sage.

Xunzi

Confucian scholar, believed people were naturally selfish, humans lack inclination to act in an ethnical manner, require training and hard work, we require roles to do ethical things

Qin Shihuang

First emperor, despotic and power-obsessed, had the terracotta soldiers built, united China under a single empire, eplaced regional feudalism with a centralized bureaucracy, created strict legalist laws and supressed confucianism such as burning books

Emperor Wu of the Han

Wanted to push the Xiongnu back and expand Han, put monopolies on salt and iron to fund the war, wanted a more agressive approach and it worked for a bit

Sima Qian

Historian during the early Han, In his writing, some say he is dimissive of Xiongnu, as he is Han and describes their inborn nature as oppurtunistic and self-centered, however he also describes the Xiongnu as descendents of the Xia, hence, part of the lineage to which the Han belong. He also describes Zhonghang Yu’s perspective who defended the Xiognu, arguing their way of life worked better than that of Han, and their culture was not “barbaric”

Zhang Qian

Han emmisary sent to the northwest to find allies against the Xiongnu, along the way, he discovered the Silk road, that opened up trade, was captured by the Xiongnu on his journey. His reports back spurred Han to project more power westward, establishing a tributary system.

Yuezhi (Tocharians)

Lived in modern day Xinjiang and Afghanastan. Lots of speculation on their appearence, mummies have been found with light hair and eyes, people suspect they were western eurasians. Historical accounts also described them as having deep-set eyes. We know people moved form one side of western euraasia continent to the other, presence of people with those genetics should not be a suprise.

Xiongnu

Northwest nomadic group, raided Han border regions. Han used to try to appease them with gifts, but later Emperor Wu tried a more agressive approach, created the debate of Salt and Iron.

Cao Cao

Became dictator of North China, recruited Xiongnu as calvary, his son forces the last Han emporor out and established Wei dynasty

Grand Canal

world’s longest ancient and artificial waterway, linked the north and south areas in the Sui, Hangzhou to Luoyang and Chang’an, strengthened cultural exchange and linguistic cohesion across the vast area of China at the time

Empress Wu

Ruled from behind the throne, declared the Zhou dynasty, only woman to rule in her own name, supported Buddhism and its growth, brutal; executed many aristocracy, reformed the examiniation system to become more merit-based

Chang’an

New capital during the Sui, then the Tang, multicultural metropolis, different cultures and ethnicities were welcome

Examination system

Established during Sui and early Tang, used to emphasize confucian learning and identify talent for government jobs. More merit based, however some still said those from aristocratic families had more resources for it, contreversal but also went through some revisions, more inclusive elite based on government service

Theravada

Earliest form of buddhism, only monastic and only men, emphasis on discipline

Mahayana

Pantheon (more than one buddha), bodhisattva, cult of guanyin, open to laypeople so easily accessible, became the dominant form in China

Daoism

Laozi, Daoists most likely to use Buddhism’s foreign origin against it, centers on living in harmony with the way (Dao) and acting in alignment with the natural flow of life rather than against it, criticized for “doing nothing”, a Tang imperial family claimed Laozi as their ancestor, putting it in favor along with Buddhism,

Confucianism

Emphasized one’s societal role and finliel piety, as well as benevolence in ruling, more conservative, some thought of it as being under threat by foreign religion,

Uighurs

Tribe north of the Tang, tributary state to the Tang, got princesses in exchange for assuming a subserviant postion to the Tang, sometimes allies, sometimes emimies, maintained a distinct relashionship form the tang, intermarried with the Tang royal house, represented as more culturally other by Chinese, however there is bias against them.

Manichaeism

Origionated in Persia, world is govered by kingdom of light and kingdom of darkness, Uighurs converted to this, possibly intended to cement ties to the Sogdians and distance from the Tang by rejecting Buddhism

Gautama siddartha

Indian prince, tried deprivation and eventually reached enlightenment. He observed 3 kinds of suffering, and concluded that to end suffering, one must stop all desire and achieve nirvana through the 8-fold path.

Du Fu

Tang Dynasty poet, lived through the An Lushan rebellion, contrast to his friend, Li Bai’s more free-spirited poems, Du Fu’s poems show the reality of Tang society at that time, also was confucist and leaned towards social order, work is more grounded

An Lushan

A general, gained power over regional bases, had foreign parents, siezed Chang’an, Tang called on Uighurs to help, emphasizes complex relationships Tang had with the Turks, highlighted the troubles with holding western regions and Tang loses control of the West, power of semi-nomadic aristocracy is broken and Chang’an is not the capital anymore, after, politics and alliance mattered more to identity then ethnicity

Han Yu

Tang dynasty writer and confucian, Very critical of Buddhism and Daoism, believed confucianism is the foundation of Chinese civilization, put identity on adherence to confucianism rather than ethnicity

Khitan (Qidan)

Had paid tribute to the Tang, sometimes allied with the Song and took a lot of payoffs, converted to Buddhism, had distinct areas ruled in Khitan and Chinese styles with different language and clothing, was able to resist complete sinification, also had a chinese inspired script and uighur inspired script

Jurchen (Ruzhen)

Founded the Jin dynasty, with agressive tactics, Song saught their help in fighting the Khitan, however then they proceeded to attack the Song and take it’s capital, script was based on chinese but highly complex, also adopted chinese ways of governance, more sinicized than Khitans

Tanguts

Herdsmen who took land form Tibetans and Uighurs, ruled a heterogeneous empire consisting of Tanguts, Uighurs, Tibetens, and Chinese, influenced by chiense traditions and claimed to be descended from the Xia, tried to bridge cultural gap in some way,

Nestorian Christianity

Earliest introduction of Christianity in China during the Tang, however suffered major setbacks when Emperor Wuzhzong banned foreign religions like christianity

Kaifeng

Northern song capital, flourishing and urban, Han Yu wouldnt have liked it as he would prefer more farming less restraunts lol, metropolis and commercial hub

Hangzhou

Southern Song capital, moved from Kaifeng, lots of feelings about losing the northern area.

Essentialist

China is a stable and continuous civilization in terms of institutions, core ideas, and philosophies, emphasize stability, chinese script,

Constructionist

Critical of essentialist model, words like “china” are incoherent and there is no historical unity over time

Historicist

There was something like a chinese identity before 19th C, yet it is not static and has transformed through encounters with hostile others

Heqin

foreign policy where an emperor would marry off a princess to the ruler of an agressive neighboring state

Sinocentrism

a worldview that places China as a center of culture, civilization, and political authority