CJ 385: Scientific Inquiry, Research Methods, and Criminological Theory

Comprehensive practice flashcards defining core vocabulary, research methodology principles, measurement concepts, and criminological theories for CJ 385 Exam 1.

Goal of science

The systematic attempt to discover patterns, explain behavioral regularities, and predict future phenomena (such as uncovering why crimes happen, predicting recidivism, and evaluating policies rather than relying on intuition).

Theory

A systematic, interconnected set of statements explaining why particular facts or phenomena occur.

Paradigms

Broad philosophical models, worldviews, or frameworks that shape how researchers view reality and conduct science (e.g., the Classical School/Rational Choice paradigm vs. the Positivist paradigm).

Micro-level theories

Explanations focused on the behavior of individual people or small interpersonal units.

Macro-level theories

Explanations focused on aggregate units, structural patterns, or systems (e.g., comparing homicide rates per $100{,}000$ residents across cities).

Exploration

Research conducted to investigate a novel, emerging, or poorly understood topic where little prior literature exists.

Description

Research aimed at documenting, observing, and counting the state of affairs or characteristics of a group or crime pattern without necessarily explaining causation.

Explanation

Research designed to answer why and how phenomena occur by identifying causal relationships.

Application

Research intended to evaluate policies, interventions, and practical real-world operations.

Qualitative research

The collection and non-statistical analysis of rich, contextual narrative data, such as words, observations, and interview transcripts.

Quantitative research

The systematic empirical investigation of observable phenomena via numerical, measurable, and statistical data.

Replication

Repeating a research study using the identical methodology (or slightly different samples) to verify if the original findings hold true.

Experiments

Rigorous research designs featuring random assignment, an experimental/treatment group, and a control group to establish causality.

SMARTT research question elements

Criteria ensuring a research question is Specific (targeted population/behavior), Measurable (empirically observable), Achievable/Attainable (feasible to answer), Relevant (matters to policy or theory), Time-bound (covers a distinct timeframe), and Theoretically grounded (connected to criminological frameworks).

Abstract

A $150\text{--}250$ word summary at the front of a scholarly article covering the research question, sample, method, major statistical results, and policy takeaway.

Methods

The section of a study detailing research design, sampling techniques, operationalization of variables, and analytical/statistical procedures used.

Sample

The specific subset of individuals, cases, or artifacts drawn from a target population to be observed.

Results

The empirical and statistical findings generated by a study, stripped of subjective speculation (e.g., odds ratios, p-values, regression tables, or qualitative themes).

Limitations

The structural weaknesses, design constraints, or unmeasured confounders transparently stated by authors.

Literature Review

A critical, synthesized analysis of existing scholarly research that maps the development of a problem, exposes what is known and unknown, and justifies a new study.

Gaps in the literature

Unanswered questions, contradictory findings between studies, understudied populations, or outdated findings that justify conducting new research.

Annotated bibliography

An organized reference list of sources where each citation is directly followed by a concise descriptive and evaluative paragraph.

Data

Raw, unanalyzed numerical values, records, or text responses (such as a spreadsheet of arrest logs) used as the primary material to produce empirical articles.

ICPSR

The Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research; the world’s largest digital archive of social science and criminal justice raw datasets, hosted at the University of Michigan.

Codebook

A reference document accompanying a raw quantitative dataset that translates the data file's column names, variable names, and numerical codes into human-readable meanings.

Hypothesis

An explicit, testable expectation about the empirical relationship between two or more variables, derived from theory.

Independent variable ($\text{IV / } X$)

The cause, predictor, or treatment variable that influences or explains changes in the outcome.

Dependent variable ($\text{DV / } Y$)

The effect, outcome, or criterion variable that changes in response to the independent variable.

Control variable ($Z$)

A variable held constant or statistically accounted for to isolate the true relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

Moderating variable

A variable that changes the strength or direction of the relationship between the independent and dependent variable.

Spuriousness

An apparent statistical correlation between two variables that is entirely false because an unmeasured third variable (confounder) is causing both.

Criteria for causality

Three requirements to prove causality: 1. Empirical Correlation ($X$ and $Y$ statistically vary together); 2. Temporal Precedence ($X$ precedes $Y$ in time); 3. Non-Spuriousness (the relationship cannot be explained by a third variable $Z$).

Conceptualization

The mental process of specifying precisely what is meant when using a particular concept.

Operationalization

Specifying the exact empirical indicators, questions, or operations used to measure a concept in the physical world.

Indicator

A concrete, observable sign that reflects the presence or absence of a concept.

Nominal

Qualitative, categorical variables where attributes have no mathematical order or rank—they are simply names/labels (e.g., offense type, sex, race).

Ordinal

Categorical attributes that can be logically ranked or ordered in hierarchy, but the exact distance between attributes is unequal or unknown (e.g., security classification level, Likert scales).

Interval

Numerical values where the distance between categories is equal and standardized, but there is no absolute/meaningful zero point (e.g., temperature at a crime scene, IQ scores).

Ratio

Numerical variables with equal intervals between values AND a true, meaningful absolute zero point representing the complete absence of the property (e.g., prior convictions, sentence length).

Mutually exclusive

A property of a variable's categories where a single observation can fit into only one category.

Exhaustive

A property of a variable's categories where every possible observation can be classified.

Reliability

The consistency, stability, and repeatability of a measurement technique across repeated applications.

Validity (Measurement)

The degree to which an empirical measure adequately and accurately reflects the real meaning of the concept it claims to measure.

Ecological fallacy

Erroneously drawing conclusions about individual people based solely on aggregate, macro-level group data.

Generalizability

The extent to which findings drawn from a sample can be accurately extended and applied to the broader unstudied population.

Internal validity threats

Flaws within the study design (e.g., history, maturation, testing effects, selection bias) that make it uncertain whether the independent variable really caused the observed change in the dependent variable.

Construct validity threats

Flaws concerning the degree to which inferences can legitimately be made from the operational measures in a study to the theoretical constructs on which they are based.

External validity threats

Factors that limit the ability to generalize study findings across other settings, times, or populations.

Statistical conclusion validity threats

Errors concerning whether researchers used appropriate statistical tests and possessed sufficient statistical power to detect true relationships without making Type I or Type II errors.

Incident

A single, discrete event during which one or more criminal offenses are committed by one or more offenders, at a specific time and location, against one or more victims.

Offense

An individual criminal act committed within an incident.

UCR (Uniform Crime Reporting Program - Summary Reporting System)

An aggregate reporting system run by the FBI since 1930 where local police agencies submit monthly summary tallies of Part I offenses and clearance rates, governed by the Hierarchy Rule.

Hierarchy Rule

A summary UCR rule mandating that if multiple offenses occur within a single incident, only the single most severe offense is reported.

NIBRS (National Incident-Based Reporting System)

The modernized FBI data collection system that replaced summary UCR; captures comprehensive incident-level details across 50+ Group A offenses without the Hierarchy Rule.

NCVS (National Crime Victimization Survey)

A national survey administered by the Bureau of Justice Statistics interviewing representative household panels twice a year to measure victimization and uncover the dark figure of crime.

Beccaria's deterrence criteria

Three traits required for punishment to deter crime: 1. Celerity (swiftness); 2. Certainty (high likelihood of detection and punishment); 3. Severity (punishment slightly outweighs the pleasure of the crime).

Hedonistic calculus

A rational choice concept positing that human behavior is driven by a cost-benefit calculation aimed at maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain.

Routine activities theory

Cohen and Felson's theory arguing predatory crime requires the spatio-temporal convergence of: 1. A motivated offender; 2. A suitable target; 3. The absence of a capable guardian.

Social disorganization theory

Shaw and McKay's Chicago School theory asserting that crime is driven by structural neighborhood characteristics (poverty, residential transience, ethnic heterogeneity) that undermine informal social controls.

General strain theory

Robert Agnew's micro-level model stating that negative relationships and stressors (failure to achieve goals, loss of positive stimuli, presentation of noxious stimuli) produce negative affective states that pressure individuals into crime.

Broken windows theory

Wilson and Kelling's perspective stating that minor, unchecked physical and social disorder signals lack of care, eroding neighborhood informal social control and inviting serious crime.

Differential association theory

Edwin Sutherland's learning theory stating delinquent behavior is learned in intimate groups when definitions favorable to violation of law outweigh definitions unfavorable to violation of law.

Social learning theory

Ronald Akers' behavioral learning theory proposing that crime is learned and sustained through four mechanisms: differential association, definitions, differential reinforcement, and imitation.

Social bonds theory

Travis Hirschi's control theory proposing that individuals are restrained from delinquency by their connection to conventional society via four elements: Attachment, Commitment, Involvement, and Belief.

Labeling theory

A symbolic interactionist perspective arguing that formal criminal justice processing attaches a stigmatizing master status of 'criminal,' leading the individual to internalize the label and engage in secondary deviance.

Life course theory

Sampson and Laub's developmental framework tracking criminal trajectories across the lifespan, emphasizing that trajectories can be disrupted by turning points (e.g., employment, marriage) that build social capital.