Thinking Critically With Psychological Science - Vocabulary

Key vocabulary flashcards covering research strategies, psychological science flaws, scientific method, experimental design, and statistical reasoning.

Hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we could have predicted it; also known as the "I-knew-it-all-along" phenomenon.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to look for and favor information that confirms or supports one's prior beliefs.

Overconfidence

The tendency to think we know more than we do, leading us to act quickly rather than correctly.

Scientific method

A self-correcting process for evaluating ideas with observations and analysis.

Theory

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Operational definition

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study.

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to determine whether the basic finding can be reproduced.

Operationalization

To define an abstract variable in concrete, measurable terms that can be observed and quantified in a study.

Case study

A descriptive research technique in which one individual or group is examined in depth to provide fruitful ideas, though it cannot be used to generalize conclusions.

Naturalistic observation

A descriptive research technique of recording behavior in natural environments, which describes behavior without explaining it.

Survey

A descriptive research technique for examining many cases by asking people to report their behavior or opinions.

Wording effects

The phenomenon where small changes in the order or wording of survey questions can significantly alter responses.

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor (variable) predicts the other.

Correlation coefficient

A statistical index of the direction and strength of the relationship between two things, ranging from $-1.00$ to $+1.00$, with $r = 0.00$ indicating no relationship.

Positive correlation

Indicates a direct relationship where two things increase together or decrease together, represented by a coefficient above $0$ to $+1.00$.

Negative correlation

Indicates an inverse relationship where as one thing increases, the other decreases, represented by a coefficient below $0$ to $-1.00$.

Illusory correlation

Perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship.

Regression toward the mean

The tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average score.

Correlational study

A study that measures the relationship between two variables without manipulating them.

Longitudinal study

A study that follows the same people over time to track changes and developments.

Experimental study

A study in which researchers manipulate a variable and use random assignment to groups to test cause-and-effect relationships.

Quasi-experimental study

A study that tests cause-and-effect relationships but lacks random assignment to groups.

Experimental group

In an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment (the independent variable).

Control group

In an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment, serving as a baseline for comparison.

Random assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance to minimize preexisting differences between groups.

Double-blind procedure

An experimental procedure in which neither the participants nor those collecting data know which group is receiving the treatment.

Placebo effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone, occurring when a participant believes they are in an experimental condition but are not.

Independent variable

The variable in an experiment that is manipulated and whose effect is being studied.

Dependent variable

The outcome variable in an experiment that is measured and may change when the independent variable is manipulated.

Confounding variable

A variable other than the independent variable that might influence a study's results.

Informed consent

An ethical code principle requiring potential research participants to be given sufficient information to choose whether to participate.

Debriefing

The post-experimental explanation of a study to its participants, including its purpose and any deception.

Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)

Committees of universities and research organizations that enforce ethical standards for research participants.

Descriptive statistics

Using statistical methods to provide a simple summary of numerical data.