Salma 1-4

Primary reason the passive voice is favored in scientific writing

It shifts the focus onto the procedure and findings rather than the person who performed the experiment (e.g., 'Samples were collected' instead of 'We collected samples').

Passive voice structure (Present Simple)

am / is / are + past participle (e.g., 'The cells are grown at $37^\circ\text{C}$.')

Passive voice structure (Past Simple)

was / were + past participle (e.g., 'The mice were divided into two groups.')

Idiom: Back to the drawing board

To start planning an experiment or project again from the beginning because the initial design failed (French: 'retour à la case départ / repartir de zéro').

Abstract (scientific writing)

A concise summary placed at the beginning of an article outlining the research question, methods, results, and conclusion.

Hypothesis

A testable idea or proposed explanation put forward by scientists to explain a phenomenon.

Method (scientific writing)

The section or procedure describing the exact steps and techniques used to conduct an experiment.

Sample (scientific research)

A small representative portion of a substance, organism, or population collected for study.

Analyse (scientific verb)

To examine data or information methodically and in detail to discover patterns or meaning.

Suggest (scientific verb)

To indicate something as probable or likely without presenting it as an absolute certainty.

Grammar rule: Comparative form of short adjectives (e.g., 'easy')

Add '-er' (or change 'y' to '-ier'); never precede with 'more' (e.g., 'easier', not 'more easy').

Grammar correction: Describing an illness affecting humans

Use the preposition 'in' with a singular noun/verb agreement: 'The disease is in humans' (not 'The disease are on the human').

Comparative rule: One-syllable consonant-vowel-consonant (CVC) adjectives

Double the final consonant before adding '-er' (e.g., big -> bigger, hot -> hotter).

Comparative rule: Multi-syllable adjectives (two or more syllables without '-y')

Place 'more' or 'less' before the adjective followed by 'than' (e.g., 'more expensive than', 'less comfortable than').

Comparative forms of 'good', 'bad', and 'far'

better, worse, and further (or farther).

Idiom: The grass is always greener on the other side

The perception that other people's situations, lives, or locations are inherently superior to one's own (French: 'L\'herbe est toujours plus verte ailleurs').

Itinerary

A detailed travel plan that lists scheduled destinations, dates, and activities.

Accommodation

A room, building, or lodging where a traveler stays (e.g., hotel, hostel, apartment).

Grammar rule: Pluralization of 'luggage' and 'accommodation'

Both are uncountable nouns in English; they never take an '-s' ending and do not take the indefinite article 'a' (e.g., 'My luggage is heavy', not 'My luggages are heavy').

False friend: French 'un doctorant'

A PhD student (not 'a doctorant').

False friend: French 'présenter des personnes'

To introduce people (English uses 'present' for topics or presentations, and 'introduce' for individuals).

False friend: French 'défauts' (when comparing items or situations)

Disadvantages or drawbacks ('default' in English refers to a preset computer setting or financial failure).

Biological target distinction: Cas9 vs. Cas13

Cas9 targets DNA, whereas Cas13 targets RNA.

Grammar rule: Subject requirements in English clauses

Unlike French, every English clause requires an explicit subject and verb, including after conjunctions like 'but', 'because', 'so', and 'although' (e.g., 'The flight is cheap, but it is long').

Pronoun convention: Referring to a deceased human body (corpse)

In clinical, anatomical, or forensic contexts viewing the body as an object, 'it' is frequently used; in personal, familial, or respectful contexts, 'he', 'she', or 'the deceased' is preferred.

Grammar distinction: 'Because' vs. 'Because of'

'Because' introduces a full clause (subject + verb), whereas 'because of' must be followed directly by a noun or noun phrase.

Sentence connector: 'However'

A transitional word signaling contrast; it typically begins a new independent sentence and is set off by a following comma (e.g., 'The test is fast. However, it is expensive.').

Sentence connector: 'Although'

A subordinating conjunction introducing a contrast clause; it cannot be paired with 'but' in the same sentence (e.g., 'Although the test is fast, it is expensive').

Sentence connector: 'Whereas'

A conjunction used to directly contrast two facts, groups, or ideas within a single sentence (e.g., 'Group A received the drug, whereas Group B received a placebo').

Idiom: Back to square one

To return to the very beginning after an effort or experiment proves entirely unsuccessful or compromised.

Idiomatic nuance: 'Back to square one' vs. 'Back to the drawing board'

'Back to square one' emphasizes returning to zero after practical work failed; 'back to the drawing board' emphasizes redesigning or rethinking the plan.

Grammar rule: Countability of 'evidence'

'Evidence' is strictly uncountable in English; it never takes a plural '-s' or the article 'an' (use 'some evidence' or 'a piece of evidence', never 'evidences').

Limitation (scientific study)

A design flaw, constraint, or condition that restricts the validity or scope of research findings (e.g., a small sample size).

English equivalent: 'Faire un cours' (as a student)

To take a course (English uses 'make' for creating things and 'take' for academic classes).

English equivalent: French 'année de césure'

A gap year (phrased as 'to take a gap year' or 'to be on a gap year').

Collocation usage: 'Make'

Used for creating, preparing, or producing something tangible or decided (e.g., make a cake, make a mistake, make an appointment, make a decision).

Collocation usage: 'Do'

Used for actions, tasks, obligations, or non-specific activities (e.g., do homework, do research, do the dishes).

Collocation usage: 'Take'

Used for participating in classes, consuming medicine, or personal routines (e.g., take a course, take medicine, take notes, take a shower).

Collocation usage: 'Have'

Used for experiencing sensations, meals, or illnesses (e.g., have a headache, have a cold, have lunch).

Past Simple: Negative and interrogative verb forms

Both utilize the auxiliary 'did' / 'didn\'t' followed strictly by the base form of the verb without '-ed' or '-s' (e.g., 'I didn\'t go', 'Did you see?').

Past Simple: Pronunciation of '-ed' as /ɪd/

Occurs only when the base verb ends in a /t/ or /d/ sound (e.g., wanted, needed, rested).

Past Simple: Pronunciation of '-ed' as /t/

Occurs after voiceless final consonant sounds such as /p/, /k/, /s/, /tʃ/ ('ch'), and /ʃ/ ('sh') (e.g., worked, watched, stopped).

Idiom: Under the weather

Feeling slightly unwell, fatigued, or lacking energy, without being gravely sick (French: 'être patraque').

Prescription

An official written instruction from a medical doctor authorizing a patient to receive a specific medicine.

Symptom

A physical or mental sign indicating the presence of an illness or condition (e.g., a cough or fever).

Side effect

A secondary, typically undesirable effect produced by a drug or medical treatment in addition to its intended therapeutic outcome.

Past Simple forms of 'catch' and 'hurt'

'caught' (irregular change) and 'hurt' (remains identical in base and past forms).

Grammar rule: English equivalent for 'il y a [temps passé]'

Use '[time period] ago' (e.g., 'two days ago', never 'since two days').

Irregular plural: 'deer'

'deer' (the plural form is identical to the singular form: one deer, two deer).