Emerging Regional Configurations (c. 600-1200 CE)

Vocabulary flashcards covering land grants, social structures, agriculture, trade guilds, urban processes, and religious movements in early medieval India (c. 600–1200 CE).

Brahmadeya

Land gifted to Brahmanas by royal order, carrying special revenue status and political/integrative dimensions.

Nalu Tali

The council of the king at Mahodayapura during the Chera period, formed by Brahmanas of the leading Brahmana settlements.

Gotra

The exogamous clan system of the Brahmanas.

Pravara

A series of names (1, 2, 3, or 5) of supposed ancestral rishis associated with a Brahmana gana.

Charana

A school of Vedic learning.

Shakha

A particular recension of a Veda.

Pancha-Gaudas

The northern group of Brahmanas established by the 10th century, comprising Sarasvata, Gauda, Kanyakubja, Maithila, and Utkala Brahmanas.

Pancha-Dravidas

The southern group of Brahmanas living south of the Vindhyas, comprising Gurjjaras, Maharashtriyas, Karnatakas, Trailingas, and Dravidas.

Kara-shasana

A rare category of land grant that remained subject to payment of taxes or nominal rent to the state.

Kraya-shasana

An inscription recording a secular land sale deed.

Nivi-dharma

A legal condition in land grant charters stipulating the permanent and inalienable nature of gifted land.

Sa-dash-aparadha

A term in land charters interpreted as transferring rights over fines for criminal offences, granting immunity from punishment, or granting judicial rights to try offenders.

Krishi-Parashara

A Sanskrit text written in verse ascribed to Parashara and composed in Bengal (c. 950-1100 CE), dealing exclusively with agricultural operations.

Madika

A ploughshare measuring 9 cubits, described in the Krishi-Parashara as best suited for all agricultural operations.

Mayika

A ladder-shaped instrument described in the Krishi-Parashara used for levelling rice fields after sowing.

Ambuvachi

A three-day period in the month of Ashadha mentioned in the Krishi-Parashara when the earth is believed to menstruate and seed sowing is prohibited.

Pushya-yatra

An agricultural festival performed in Pausha before the harvesting of paddy, featuring feasting, music, dancing, and prayers to the sun god.

Vastu

Homestead land that formed the core of a village settlement.

Kaivarttas

An occupational group in early medieval Assam traditionally associated with fishing and boating.

Araghatta

An artificial water-lifting mechanism used for field irrigation, associated with the noria or Persian wheel.

Mandapika

A local commercial exchange centre functioning as an intermediate trade level between periodic market fairs (hatta) and large trade cities (pattana).

Hundika

A bill of exchange used by early medieval Indian traders to facilitate large-scale transactions without handling cash.

Segmentary state

A state model proposed by Aidan Southall and applied to the Chola empire by Burton Stein, emphasizing ritual sovereignty over peripheral administrative foci rather than centralized political control.

Puravu-vari-tinaikkalam

The land revenue department of the Chola administration responsible for maintaining accounts and revenue records.

Kadamai

The primary land revenue tax in the later Chola period, typically collected in kind.

Antarayam

A rural tax realized in cash during the Chola period.

Eccoru

The obligation of villagers to supply food to visiting state officials.

Ur

The non-brahmadeya village settlement and its corporate assembly of tax-paying landholders.

Sabha

The corporate assembly of Brahmana landholders in a brahmadeya village.

Nattar

The corporate body representing the landholders of a nadu locality.

Taniyur

A status assigned to major brahmadeyas or nagarams granting them independent standing outside the jurisdiction of the surrounding nadu.

Nagaram

An urban market centre for commodity production and trade, managed by a corporate merchant body known as the nagarattar.

Idangai

The 'left-hand' supra-caste division in early medieval South India, comprising mostly artisanal and trading groups.

Valangai

The 'right-hand' supra-caste division in early medieval South India, comprising mostly agricultural groups.

Bananju-dharma

The ethical code of conduct governing merchant guilds (samayas) in early medieval South India.

Ayyavole

Also known as the Ainnurruvar ('The Five Hundred'), a prominent supra-regional merchant guild originating in Aihole, Karnataka.

Vajrayana

Esoteric Tantric Buddhism ('Thunderbolt Vehicle') utilizing rituals, mantras, and meditation to attain spiritual perfection.

Sahajayana

An esoteric Buddhist path taught by Saraha emphasizing intuitive realization and guidance from a guru over formal rituals.

Advaita Vedanta

The non-dualistic philosophical system expounded by Gaudapada and Shankara asserting that Brahman is the sole ultimate reality and the physical world is illusion (maya).

Agamas

Canonical Shaiva texts composed between c. 400 and 800 CE detailing temple architecture, rituals, philosophy, and Shaiva bhakti.

Kapalikas

An order of Tantric Shaivite ascetics who carried skull bowls, dwelt in forests, and practiced rigorous penances.

Tevaram

The collection of Shaiva devotional hymns composed by the three primary Nayanmar saints (Sambandar, Appar, and Sundarar).

Nalayira Divya Prabandham

The canonical collection of four thousand Tamil hymns composed by the 12 Alvar saints, compiled by Nathamuni.

Vishishtadvaita

The philosophy of qualified non-dualism expounded by Ramanuja, holding that Brahman is sa-guna (endowed with attributes) and inseparable from individual souls.

Vachanas

Devotional free-verse poems composed in Kannada by Virashaiva saints such as Basavanna.

Tevaratiyar

Tamil term used in Chola inscriptions for women dedicated to or associated with a temple ('devotee of god').