An alternative view: secularisation and security

N____ and I____ (2011) reject religious market - why?

Norris and Inglehart (2011) reject religious market theory on the grounds that it only applies to America and fails to explain the variations in religiosity between different societies. For example, international studies of religion have found no evidence of the link between religious choice and religious participation that Stark and Bainbridge claim exists.

Existential security theory

• Norris and Inglehart argue that the reason for variations in religiosity between societies is not different degrees of religious choice, but different degrees of existential security - what does existential security mean?

• When people feel s____ in their everyday lives, they are less likely to turn to r___ for c____ or r_____.

Religion meets a need for security, and therefore societies where people already feel s___ have a low level of d___ for religion:

• how would a Poor society be?

• how would a rich society be?

Existential security theory

• Norris and Inglehart argue that the reason for variations in religiosity between societies is not different degrees of religious choice, but different degrees of existential security.

• By this, they mean 'the feeling that your life and survival are stable and safe, so you don’t constantly worry about things like poverty, illness, or danger.

• When people feel secure in their everyday lives, they are less likely to turn to religion for comfort or reassurance.

Religion meets a need for security, and therefore societies where people already feel secure have a low level of demand for religion:

• Poor societies, where people face life-threatening risks such as famine, disease and environmental disasters, have high levels of insecurity and thus high levels of religiosity. Poor people who live in rich societies also face greater insecurity and are therefore more religious than rich people in those societies:

• Rich societies, where people have a high standard of living and are at less risk, have a greater sense of security and thus lower levels of religiosity.

Existential security theory

• Thus the demand for religion is not c____, as Stark and Bainbridge claim, but varies both within and between s____.

• Demand is greatest from l____-i__ groups and societies, because they are less s___.

• This explains why p___ developing countries remain r___, while prosperous Western countries have become more secular.

• However, Norris and Inglehart note that g___ p____ growth undermines the trend towards s___

• Rich, secure, secular Western countries have l___ levels of p____ g____, whereas p___, i____, religious countries have high rates.

  • As a result, while rich countries are becoming more s____, the majority of the world is becoming more r____.

Existential security theory

• Thus the demand for religion is not constant, as Stark and Bainbridge claim, but varies both within and between societies.

• Demand is greatest from low-income groups and societies, because they are less secure.

• This explains why poor developing countries remain religious, while prosperous Western countries have become more secular.

• However, Norris and Inglehart note that global population growth undermines the trend towards secularisation

• Rich, secure, secular Western countries have low levels of population growth, whereas poor, insecure, religious countries have high rates.

  • As a result, while rich countries are becoming more secular, the majority of the world is becoming more religious.

Europe vs. America

• In Western Europe, the trend is towards increasing s____.

• N____ and I____ argue that this is not surprising, because these societies are among the most e___ and secure in the world, with well d____ w____ states offering c___ h____ c___, s___ s___ and p___.

• This reduces p____ and protects those at the bottom from i___.

• By comparison with Europe, the United States remains much more religious. Norris and Inglehart argue that this is because America is also the most u___ of the r____ societies, with an inadequate w___ s___-n___ and i___ d___ eat d__' values.

• This creates high levels of p____ and i____, which creates a greater need for r____.

• Thus, although America is more religious than Europe, this is explained by Norris and Inglehart's general theory of religiosity as the result of i____. For example, they point out that although America is religious by the s___ of other r____ nations, it is l____ r___ than poor ones.

Europe vs. America

• In Western Europe, the trend is towards increasing secularisation.

• Norris and Inglehart argue that this is not surprising, because these societies are among the most equal and secure in the world, with well developed welfare states offering comprehensive health care, social services and pensions.

• This reduces poverty and protects those at the bottom from insecurity.

• By comparison with Europe, the United States remains much more religious. Norris and Inglehart argue that this is because America is also the most unequal of the rich societies, with an inadequate welfare safety-net and individualistic dog eat dog' values.

• This creates high levels of poverty and insecurity, which creates a greater need for religion.

• Thus, although America is more religious than Europe, this is explained by Norris and Inglehart's general theory of religiosity as the result of insecurity. For example, they point out that although America is religious by the standards of other rich nations, it is less religious than poor ones.

State welfare and religiosity ✓research support for Existential security theory

• Norris and Inglehart's argument is supported by G___ and L____ (2004), who found that the more a country spends on w____, the lower the level of r____ p____.

• Thus European countries, which spend more than the USA, are also more s____ (non-religious) than the USA.

• G___ and L____ note that in the past religion used to provide w____ for the poor, and still does so in p____ countries.

• However, from the ___th century, the s___ in the West began to provide w____ and this contributed to r____ d___.

• Nevertheless, Gill and Lundegaarde do not expect religion to disappear completely, why?

• Thus although the availability of w____ reduces the need for religion, it does not eliminate that n___ completely.

State welfare and religiosity ✓research support for Existential security theory

• Norris and Inglehart's argument is supported by Gill and Lundegaarde (2004), who found that the more a country spends on welfare, the lower the level of religious participation.

• Thus European countries, which spend more than the USA, are also more secular (non-religious) than the USA.

• Gill and Lundegaarde note that in the past religion used to provide welfare for the poor, and still does so in poorer countries.

• However, from the 20th century, the state in the West began to provide welfare and this contributed to religion's decline.

• Nevertheless, Gill and Lundegaarde do not expect religion to disappear completely, because although welfare provision meets the need for security, it does not answer 'ultimate' questions about the meaning of life, unlike religion.

• Thus although the availability of welfare reduces the need for religion, it does not eliminate that need completely.

Evaluation of existential security theory

✓- V____ (2007) accepts that Norris and Inglehart offer a v____ explanation of different levels of religious p___ not only just in E___ and the U___, but g___

However, V___ (2007) makes two criticisms:

x what are these 2 criticisms?

Evaluation of existential security theory

✓- Vásquez (2007) accepts that Norris and Inglehart offer a valuable explanation of different levels of religious participation not only just in Europe and the USA, but globally

However, Vásquez (2007) makes two criticisms:

✘- They use only quantitative data about income levels; they don't examine people's own definitions of 'existential security'. Vásquez argues that qualitative research is also needed.

✘- Norris and Inglehart only see religion as a negative response to deprivation. They ignore the positive reasons people have for religious participation and the appeal that some types c religion have for the wealthy.