Apologetics Fallacies Quiz

Strawman

Misrepresenting another person’s position so that a weaker version is easier to attack. Example: A student asks for a short break during a long class; someone replies, “So you want school to be optional.”

False cause

Treating an observed relationship or sequence as proof that one event caused another. Example: A town installs new benches and crime falls that month; someone credits the benches without investigating other causes.

Appeal to emotion

Using feelings such as fear, pity, or guilt in place of adequate reasons for a claim. Example: A candidate asks voters to feel sorry for her rather than explain her policy.

The fallacy fallacy

Assuming that because an argument for a conclusion is flawed, the conclusion itself must be false. Example: One person gives a poor reason for wearing helmets; another declares that helmets cannot prevent injury.

Slippery slope

Claiming that one step will inevitably lead to extreme consequences without adequate support for the chain. Example: A student argues that one optional reading day will cause all academic standards to vanish.

Ad hominem

Attacking a speaker’s character or traits instead of addressing that person’s argument. Example: Someone dismisses a safety recommendation because its author dresses strangely.

Tu quoque

Responding to criticism by accusing the critic of similar misconduct instead of answering the criticism. Example: When told to stop littering, a person replies, “You littered last year.”

Personal incredulity

Rejecting a claim because one personally finds it difficult to understand or imagine. Example: A student says that because quantum physics is confusing, its conclusions cannot be true.

Special pleading

Inventing an unjustified exception or new condition to protect a claim from counterevidence. Example: A self-described perfect forecast service explains away each missed forecast as a day when its promise did not apply.

Loaded question

Posing a question that presupposes an unproven accusation or assumption. Example: A principal asks a student, “Have you finally stopped lying to your teachers?” before any lying is established.

Burden of proof

Insisting that others must disprove a claim instead of providing support for the claim being made. Example: Someone claims an invisible dragon lives in the gym and treats the absence of disproof as proof.

Ambiguity

Using a word or phrase with more than one meaning to produce a misleading conclusion. Example: A store advertises a “free choice” of gifts; a buyer mistakenly interprets it as gifts that cost nothing.

The gambler’s fallacy

Assuming that a run of results changes the probability of the next independent random result. Example: After four heads in a row, someone treats a fair coin’s next toss as more likely to be tails.

Bandwagon

Treating popularity or widespread acceptance as proof that a claim is true or right. Example: A rumor is defended with “Almost everyone in our class believes it.”

Appeal to authority

Treating a person’s authority or status as decisive proof, rather than examining relevant expertise and evidence. Example: A famous singer’s opinion about bridge engineering is presented as proof that a design is safe.

Composition/division

Assuming without justification that what is true of a part must be true of the whole, or vice versa. Example: Each player on a team is talented, so someone assumes the team must work well together.

No true Scotsman

Redefining group membership to exclude a counterexample and protect a generalization. Example: A person says no sports fan ever misses a game; when shown a fan who did, he insists that person is not a real fan.

Genetic

Accepting or rejecting a claim solely because of its source or origin rather than its merits. Example: A proposal is rejected solely because it came from a rival school.

Black-or-white

Presenting only two possibilities when more options exist; also called a false dilemma. Example: A coach says students must either train seven days a week or give up the sport.

Begging the question

Reasoning in a circle by assuming the conclusion within the supporting premise. Example: A handbook is described as accurate because “Everything it says is correct.”

Appeal to nature

Arguing that something is good, right, or safe simply because it is natural. Example: A lotion is declared harmless solely because its ingredients grow in nature.

Anecdotal

Using one personal experience or isolated example to override stronger or broader evidence. Example: A student says sleep has no effect on focus because she once stayed up all night and performed well.

The Texas sharpshooter

Selecting patterns or clusters after looking at data, then treating the chosen pattern as confirmation. Example: A club measures twenty outcomes, displays only the two improved ones, and calls its program a complete success.

Middle ground

Assuming the truth must be halfway between two opposing positions. Example: One classmate says there are two windows; another says ten; a third insists six must be correct because it is the midpoint.