AP European History: Units 1, 2, and 3 Key Terms

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering key historical terms, figures, events, and doctrines from AP European History Units 1, 2, and 3: Renaissance and Exploration, Age of Reformation, and Absolutism and Constitutionalism.

Feudal System

Political, military, and social system in the Middle Ages, based on the holding of lands in fief and relations between lord and vassal.

The Great Schism (1414-1418)

The crisis in the late medieval church when there were two competing popes, in France and in Rome. Ended by the Council of Constance.

Renaissance

The humanistic revival of classical art, architecture, literature, and learning that originated in Italy in the 14th century and later spread throughout Europe.

Oligarchy

The merger of the northern Italian feudal nobility and the commercial elite created this small powerful group of individuals who ruled a city and surrounding countryside.

Republic

While many Italian City-States claimed to be this, and some even had a constitution, in reality almost all were actually controlled by a small group of elites.

Humanism

Term generally applied to the predominant social philosophy and intellectual and literary currents of the period from 1400 to 1650. The return to favor of the classics stimulated the philosophy of secularism, the appreciation of worldly pleasures, and above all intensified the assertion of personal independence and individual expression.

Individualism

Stressed personality, uniqueness, genius, and full development of one’s capabilities and talents.

Nicolo Machiavelli

Florentine diplomat and historian who lived from 1469-1527. Wrote the famous essay, The Prince, which described his view of realistic government with a strong leader concerned only with political power and success and embracing the ideal of seeking to be feared rather than loved by the masses.

Baldassare Castiglione

Italian diplomat who lived from 1478-1529. Published the most famous Renaissance book, The Book of the Courtier. This became the archetype for the "Renaissance man," who was versed in liberal arts and social graces, as contrasted to the more unrefined Middle Ages knight.

Lorenzo Valla

An Italian humanist, rhetorician, and educator. He is best known for his textual analysis that proved that the Donation of Constantine was a forgery.

Christian Humanism

A Renaissance movement that combined a revived interest in the nature of humanity with the Christian faith. It impacted art, changed the focus of religious scholarship, shaped personal spirituality, and helped encourage the Protestant Reformation.

Utopia (1516)

Work written by Thomas More. Served as a criticism of contemporary society. It depicted an imaginary society based on reason and tolerance that overcame social and political injustice by holding all property and goods in common.

Desiderius Erasmus

Dutch scholar known as "Prince of Northern Humanists." Lived from 1465-1536. He criticized the lack of spirituality in the Church in The Praise of Folly, which ridicules the superstition, ignorance, and vice of Christians on pilgrimages, in fasting, and the Church's interpretation of the Bible.

Patrons

Refers to the support that kings, popes and the wealthy have provided to artists such as musicians, painters, and sculptors.

Querelle de Femmes

Meaning "the woman question," refers to a literary debate about the nature and status of women. This debate began around 1500 and continued beyond the end of the Renaissance.

Christine de Pizan

A French Renaissance writer who wrote some of the very first feminist pieces of literature and broke with the traditional roles assigned to women in several ways during a time when women had no legal rights and were considered a man's property.

Pragmatic Sanction of the Bourges (1438)

Issued by Charles VII of France; it asserted the superiority of general council over the papacy, giving the French crown major control over the appointment of bishops, and depriving the pope of French ecclesiastical revenues.

Court of the Star Chamber

Established by Henry VII of England and applied principles that ran counter to English common-law and reduced aristocratic trouble making.

Hermandades

Also known as "brotherhoods" and used by Isabella and Ferdinand in Spain to curb aristocratic rebellion. These popular groups in the towns were given authority to act as local police forces and as judicial tribunals. They repressed violence with such savage punishments that by 1498 they could be disbanded.

Treaty of Lodi (1454-1455)

A peace agreement signed in 1454 that ended decades of war between the major Italian city-states brought on by Milanese expansionism. The high mark of Renaissance diplomacy, the treaty established a complex balance of power on the Italian peninsula and maintained stability until France invaded in 1494.

Girolamo Savonarola

A Dominican friar in Florence who preached against sin and corruption and gained a large following. He expelled the Medici from Florence but was later excommunicated and executed for criticizing the Pope.

Columbian Exchange

A period of cultural and biological exchanges between the New and Old Worlds. Exchanges of plants, animals, diseases and technology transformed European and Native American ways of life.

Astrolabe

An instrument used to make astronomical measurements, typically of the altitudes of celestial bodies, and in navigation for calculating latitude.

Stern-post rudder

This along with triangular lateen sails made ships like the caravel more maneuverable and able to hold more cargo.

Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460)

Was a Portuguese royal prince, soldier, and patron of explorers.

Vasco da Gama (c.1460-1524)

Portuguese explorer whose fleet rounded the Cape of Good Hope to Calicut in India in 1497.

Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)

Set the Line of Demarcation which was a boundary established in 1493 to define Spanish and Portuguese possessions in the Americas.

Hernando Cortes (1485-1547)

Spanish conquistador who initiated the conquest of the Aztec Empire on behalf of Charles V, king of Castile and Holy Roman Emperor, in the early 16th century.

Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521)

Commissioned by Charles V to find a direct route to Asia for spices. Was the first expedition to circumnavigate the Earth.

Christopher Columbus (1451-1506)

Sailed under the authority of the Spanish crown. He was looking for a passage to the Indies by sailing West. Discovered Cuba, the Canary Islands, Hispaniola etc. His voyage lead to the explosion of Spanish exploration and discovered North America.

Encomienda System

Established to grant conquerors the right to use native populations as labor in agriculture and mining in the Americas.

Tenochtitlan

Central city of the Aztec Empire.

Conquistador

A conqueror, especially one of the Spanish conquerors of Mexico and Peru in the 16th century.

Viceroy

A ruler exercising authority in a colony on behalf of a sovereign.

Price Revolution

A term used to describe a series of economic events from the second half of the 15th century to the first half of the 17th century. This refers most specifically to the high rate of inflation that occurred during this period across Western Europe.

Dutch East India Company

A multinational corporation founded in 1602 as a result of government consolidation, this organization monopolized the spice trade and was the world's first publicly traded company.

Joint Stock Company

A business entity where individuals buy shares in a company and receive dividends on their investment while also limiting the risk involved.

Bank of Amsterdam

Founded in 1609, this financial institution became the first deposit and transfer institution in Europe.

Peace of Augsburg (1555)

Decision by HRE Charles V to let the political authority in each territory of the Holy Roman Empire decide between the Catholic and Lutheran faith. Officially recognized Lutheranism in the Holy Roman Empire.

Edict of Nantes (1598)

Issued by Henry IV of France, it granted liberty of public worship to Huguenots in 150 fortified towns.

John Calvin

Established a Protestant community in Geneva and published the Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536) which outlined the tenant of Predestination.

Martin Luther

Augustinian Monk who challenged church corruptions and dogma through Sola Fide, Sola Gratia, Sola Scriptura (Faith Alone, Grace Alone, Scripture Alone).

Diet of Worms (1521)

Called by the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V's at which Martin Luther was summoned to appear and recant his criticism of the Catholic Church or face excommunication.

Protestant

General term applied to all non-Catholic western European Christians.

Anabaptists

Protestant group who viewed baptism solely as an external witness to a believer's conscious profession of faith, rejected infant baptism, and believed in the separation of church from state.

Indulgences

Was sold during the time of the Reformation by the Catholic Church as a means of obtaining forgiveness of one's sins and therefore reducing time in purgatory.

Simony

The selling of Church offices.

Pluralism

The holding of many benefices (Offices) simultaneously but seldom visit or perform the spiritual responsibilities of those offices.

Catholic Reformation

The 16th Century reform movement in the Roman Catholic Church in reaction to the Protestant Reformation.

Huguenots

Term used for French Calvinists.

St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre

An attack on Calvinists in Paris on August 24, 1572 at the wedding ceremony of Margaret of Valois and Protestant Henry of Navarre that quickly spread throughout the French provinces.

War of Three Henries

This was the last of the wars that occurred over the religious differences in France, between the Catholics (Henry III of France and Henry of Guise) and Protestants (Henry IV).

Council of Trent

Called by Pope Paul III from 1545-1563 in response to the Reformation, to address corruptions, reinforce doctrine, and attempt to reconcile with the Protestants.

Index of Prohibited books

Was a list of publications deemed heretical or anti-clerical and therefore banned by the Catholic Church.

Henry the VIII of England

Initially an opponent of the Reformation, but eventually broke with the Catholic Church and issued The Supremacy Act (1534).

Book of Common Prayer

Archbishop Thomas Cranmer prepared this to standardize worship, which included the order for all services of the Church of England.

Elizabethan Settlement

Laws that required outward conformity to the Church of England and uniformity on all ceremonies.

Baroque

A style of art marked by heavy and dramatic ornamentation and flourished between 1550-1750 and associated with the Catholic Counter-Reformation.

Charles V

Holy Roman Emperor who, upon his succession to the throne, inherited the lands of Spain, Burgundy, and Austria. His reign was dominated by multiple wars with France, the Ottomans, and Protestant Princes.

Predestination

Belief that God has already decided all that will happen, especially with regard to the salvation of some and not others. Central tenet of Calvinism.

Gustavus Adolphus

King of Sweden,has been called the “father of modern warfare,” being one of the first military commanders to make use of mobile artillery on the battlefield. He fought for the Protestant cause in the 30 Years War.

30 Years War

European continental war that took place from 1618-1648. Most of the fighting took place in the Holy Roman Empire, although the war grew to include European powers outside of the Empire. What began as a local, religious conflict became more and more continental and political by the end.

Peace of Westphalia

Ended the 30 Years War. Its provisions weakened the Holy Roman Emperor and established France as the dominant power in Western Europe. The Dutch Netherlands and Switzerland became independent and outside of Hapsburg influence, while France gained Alsace and Brandenburg - an ascendant Protestant kingdom in the Holy Roman Empire - gained territory, as well.

Salvation by Faith Alone

One of the central tenants of Martin Luther’s theology; diminished the concept of “good works” in Catholic theology and was a main reason for the separation of Luther from Catholicism.

Vernacular

The everyday language of a region or country. Miguel de Cervantes, Geoffrey Chaucer, Dante, and Martin Luther all encouraged the development of their national languages by writing in the local language instead of Latin.

Puritans

Members of a group of English Protestants who did not believe that the Church of England had not reformed enough and wished to worship in their own congregations, despite English law requiring them to attend regular Anglican services.

Act of Supremacy

Was an act of the Parliament of England under Henry VIII declaring that he was 'the only supreme head on earth of the Church in England'. Started and separated the Anglican Church from the Catholic Church and put the king as head.

Catherine De Medici

Queen of France from 1547 to 1559 and served as regent for her weak sons. Worked to navigate the Valois interests through the French Wars of Religion.

Excommunication

The action of officially excluding someone from participation in the sacraments and services of the Christian Church.

Absolutism

A system of government in which a monarch holds sole and uncontestable power over the state and his or her subjects. Supporters of this theory linked royal power with divine authority, presenting the monarch as God's lieutenant on earth. It was most prevalent in the 17th century and emerged in response to decades of religious warfare, which fueled public demand for a strong ruler who could maintain order.

James I

First Stuart to be king of England and Ireland from 1603 to 1625 and king of Scotland from 1567 to 1625; he was the son of Mary Queen of Scots and he succeeded Elizabeth I; he alienated the British Parliament by claiming the divine right of kings.

Peter the Great

Romanov ruler of Russia from 1682-1725. He brought Western European ideas to Russia, improved the Russian army, achieved control of the Orthodox Church, dominated the nobility, and transformed Russia into a major world power.

Frederick II

King of Prussia from 1740 until 1786. His most significant accomplishments during his reign included his military victories, his reorganization of Prussian armies, his patronage of the arts and the Enlightenment in Prussia, and his final success against great odds in the Seven Years' War.

Joseph II

Holy Roman Emperor from 1765 to 1790 and ruler of the Habsburg lands from 1780 to 1790. He was a proponent of enlightened absolutism; however, his commitment to modernizing reforms subsequently engendered significant opposition, which eventually culminated in an ultimate failure to fully implement his programs.

Louis XIV

He ruled from 1643-1715, the longest reign in French history. He constructed Versailles, believed in the divine right of kings, engaged in many wars, and established absolutism in France. He was also known as the “Sun King”.

Bill of Rights (1689)

Drawn up by Parliament and presented to King William II and Queen Mary, it listed certain rights of Parliament. It also limited the king's powers in taxing and prohibited the maintenance of a standing army in peacetime.

Maria Theresa of Austria

Was born May 13, 1717, in Vienna, Austria and in 1740 succeeded to the Habsburg throne. Was involved in many conflicts including against Prussia. Also initiated reforms of the Austrian military and government.

Nine Years War (1688-1697)

(War of the League of Augsburg) Result of Louis XIV trying to extend French territory to the Rhine.

Treaty of Utrecht

Ended the War of Spanish Succession in 1713, recognizing France's Philip V as Kind of Spain, but prohibited the unification of the French and Spanish monarchies. England gained profitable lands in North America from France.

Fronde

A series of revolts in France from 1648-1653 that challenged the authority of young King Louis XIV and his minister Mazarin.

Divine Right of Kings

The doctrine that kings derived their authority from God, not from their subjects, from which it follows that rebellion is the worst of political crimes.

Protectorate

Period during the Commonwealth when England was governed by a Lord Protector.

Oliver Cromwell

English general and statesman who led the parliamentary army in the English Civil War (1599-1658).

Cardinal Richelieu

Chief minister to Henry IV's weak son, Louis XIII of France. He worked to establish absolute rule by weakening the nobles and Huguenots and employing intendants.

Glorious Revolution

Also called the Revolution of 1688, was the overthrow of King James II of England (James VII of Scotland and James II of Ireland) by a union of English Parliamentarians with the Dutch stadtholder William III of Orange-Nassau (William of Orange).

Junkers

A German nobleman or aristocrat, especially a member of the Prussian aristocracy.

Cardinal Mazarin

The adviser to Louis XIV's mother Anne and a young Louis XIV. He emulated Richelieu in his method of administration and groomed Louis for the throne, although he was not liked by the French aristocracy, who revolted against Mazarin and Anne in the Fronde.

Jean Baptist Colbert

An economic advisor to Louis XIV; he supported mercantilism and tried to make France economically self-sufficient. Brought prosperity to France.

Palace of Versailles

Once a simple hunting lodge, Louis XIV spent lavishly to convert it into the envy of power and prestige in Europe. It was also used as a tool of control over the nobility in France.

Boyars

Terms used for the Russian nobility.

Dutch Golden Age

A period in the history of the Netherlands which roughly lasted from 1588, when the Dutch Republic was established, to the late 17th century. During this period, Dutch trade, scientific developments, art and overseas colonization was among the most prominent in Europe.

Restoration

In England, took place in 1660 when King Charles II returned from exile in continental Europe. The preceding period of the Protectorate and the civil wars came to be known as the Interregnum.

James II

King of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 1685 to 1688, and the last Stuart monarch in the direct male line. He was deposed in the Glorious Revolution (1688–89) and replaced by William III and Mary II.

Dutch Realism

Refers to the style of Baroque art that blossomed in the Netherlands during after the final phase of the Eighty Years' War. Exemplified by the humanistic canvases of Rembrandt, it focused instead on everyday themes portrayed in convincing detail.

Toleration Act of 1689

A law passed by the English Parliament that granted freedom of worship to most Protestant dissenters, but not Roman Catholics or Unitarians. The act was part of a series of measures that established the Glorious Revolution in England.

Test Act of 1673

This required all those wishing to hold office to swear an oath to the King and the Protestant English Church and to sign a declaration denying the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation.

Intendants

Were appointed officials who served as the main link between the French Monarchy and its provinces. Their duties included tax collection, reporting back to the monarchy, supervising local courts, and monitoring the military.