Psychology Unit 5 (Textbook)

self-report

a method in which people provide subjective information about their own thoughts, feelings, or behaviors, typically via questionnaire or interview

describing and explaining personality

many psychologists attempt to study and explain personality differences by thinking about them in terms of prior events that may have shaped an individual’s personality or anticipated events that motivate the person to reveal particular personality characteristics

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) (1939)

a well researches clinical questionnaire used to assess personality and psychological problems. 335 self-descriptive statements that measures clinical problems, somatic problems, internalizing problems, externalizing problems, and interpersonal problems. also included validity scales

projective tests

designed to reveal inner aspects of individuals’ personalities by analysis of their responses to a standard series of ambiguous stimuli

Rorschach Inkblot test (1921)

projective technique in which respondents’ inner thoughts and feelings are believed to be revealed by analysis of their responses to a set of unstructured inkblots

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) (1930s)

a projective technique in which respondents’ underlying motives, concerns, and the way they see the social world are believed to be revealed through analysis of the stories they make up about ambiguous pictures of people

2 challenges that trait theorists face

narrowing down an almost infinite set of adjectives to a set of traits, answering the more basic question of why people have particular traits and whether those traits arise from biological or hereditary foundations

trait approach to personality

uses traits terms to characterize differences among individuals

trait

a relatively stable disposition to behave in a particular and consistent way

trait might provide an explanation for behavior in two basic ways

may be a preexisting disposition of the person that causes the person’s behavior, or it may be a motivation that guides the person’s behavior.

Big Five

the traits of the five-factor personality model: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism

behavioral activation system (BAS)

activates approach behavior in response to the anticipation of reward. Extroverts have a highly reactive one and will actively engage the environment, seeking social reinforcement and being on the go

behavioral inhibition system (BIS)

a “stop” system. inhibits behavior in response to stimuli signaling punishment. introverted person has a highly reactive one and will focus on negative outcomes and be on the lookout for stop signs.

psychodynamic approach

regards personality as formed by needs, strivings, and desires largely operating outside of awareness—motives that can produce emotional disorders

humanistic psychologists

emphasized in the 1950s and 1960s a positive, optimistic view of human nature that highlights people’s inherent goodness and their potential for personal growth.

existentialist psychologists

focused on in the 1950s and 1960s the individual as a responsible agent who is free to create and live their life while negotiating the issue of meaning and the reality of death

humanistic-existential approach to personality

integrates the insights of humanistic and existential psychologists and focuses on how a personality can become optimal

self-actualizing tendency

the human motive toward realizing our inner potential

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

a model of essential human needs arranged according to their priority, in which basic physiological and safety needs must be satisfied before a person can afford to focus on higher-level psychological needs

self-actualization

the highest need on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. the need to be good, fully alive, and to find meaning in life

flow

engagement in tasks that exactly match one’s abilities creates a mental state of energized focus. “just right”

existential approach

a school of thought that regards personality as governed by an individual’s ongoing choices and decisions in the context of the realities of life and death

angst

the anxiety of fully being

social-cognitive approach

views personality in terms of how a person thinks about the situations encountered in daily life and behaves in response to them

person-situation controversy

the question of whether behavior is caused more by personality or situational factors

personal constructs

dimensions people use in making sense of their experiences

outcome expectancies

a person’s assumptions about the likely consequences of a future behavior

locus of control

person’s tendency to perceive the control of rewards as internal to the self or external to the environment.

internal locus of control

people who believe they control their own destiny

external locus of control

people who believe that outcomes are random, determined by luck, or controlled by other people

self-concept

a person’s explicit knowledge of their own behaviors, traits, and other personal characteristics. organized body of knowledge that develops from social experiences and has a profound effect on a person’s behavior throughout life.

2 ways to organize our knowledge of ourselves

as narratives about episodes in our lives and in terms of traits (episodic memory and semantic memory)

self-narrative

the aspect of self-concept that is a story that we tell about ourselves.

self-verification

the tendency to seek evidence to confirm the self-concept

self-esteem

the extent to which an individual likes, values, and accepts the self

emphasis about what’s so great about self esteem

social status, the need to belong, and the need for security

self-serving bias

people tend to take credit for their successes but downplay responsibility for their failures

narcissism

a grandiose view of the self, combined with a tendency to seek admiration from and exploit others

prenatal stage of development

conception to birth

germinal stage

the period from conception to 2 weeks after conception. the one-celled zygote begins dividing into multiple cells.

embryonic stage

a period that starts at about the 2nd week after conception and lasts until about the 8th week after conception. the cells of the implanted embryo continue to divide and differentiate

fetal stage

a period that lasts from about the 9th week after conception until birth.

prenatal environment

womb is an environment and it has a powerful impact on fetal development. many important substances pass from a mother’s bloodstream to her fetus’s bloodstream.

teratogen

a substance that impairs fetal development

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

a developmental disorder that stems from heavy alcohol use by the mother during pregnancy

infancy

the stage of development that begins at birth and lasts between 18 and 24 months.

motor development

the emergence of the ability to execute physical actions

motor reflexes

motor responses that are triggered by specific patterns of sensory stimulation

rooting reflex

causes infants to move their mouths toward any object that touches their cheek

sucking reflex

causes them to such an object that enter their mouth

cephalocaudal principle

top-to-bottom. the tendency for motor skills to emerge in sequence from the head to the feet. infants gain control over their heads first, their arms and trunks next, and their legs and feet last.

proximodistal principle

inside-to-outside. the tendency for motor skills to emerge in sequence from the center of the body to the periphery. infants learn to control their trunks before their elbows and knees, which they learn to control before their hands and feet.

cognitive development

the process by which infants and children gain the ability to think and understand.

three important things Piaget’s studies suggest infants and children must learn in the course of cognitive development

how the physical world works, how their own mind works, and how other people’s minds work.

sensorimotor

birth-2 years. infant experiences the world by sensing it and moving in it, develops “schemas,” begins to act intentionally, and shows evidence of understanding “object permanence.”

preoperational

2-6 years. child acquires motor skills but does not understand “conversation.” child begins this stage by thinking egocentrically but ends with a basic understanding of other minds.

concrete operational

6-11 years. child can think logically about physical object and events and understands “conservation”

formal operational

11 years and up. child can think logically about abstract propositions and hypotheticals

sensorimotor stage of cognitive development

birth to infancy. mainly busy using their ability to sense (their perceptual skills) and their ability to move (their motor skills) to acquire information about the world.

schemas

theories about the way the world works. babies begin to construct these by actively exploring their environments with their eyes, mouths, and fingers

assimilation

the process of applying a schema to novel stimuli

accommodation

the process of adjusting a schema to incorporate new information

object permanence

the understanding that objects exist even when they are not visible

childhood

a period that begins around 2 years and ends around 11-14 years. children learn how to manipulate and transform information in their minds. “mental operations”

peroperational stage

the stage of cognitive development that begins at around 2 years and ends at around 6 years

concrete operational stage

the stage of cognitive development that begins at around 6 years and ends at around 11 year

formal operational

the stage of cognitive development that begins around the age of 11

egocentrism

the failure to understand that the world appears different to different people. hallmark of the preoperational stage

theory of mind

the understanding that minds represent the world, and that different minds may represent it differently.

factors in when children acquire a theory of mind

number of siblings the child has, the frequency with which the child engages in pretend play, socioeconomic status of family, the frequency with which their parent use words such as think and want, child’s culture.

joint attention

the ability to focus on what another person is focused on

imitation

the tendency to do what another person does

social referencing

the ability to use another person’s reactions to the world as information about the world

attachment

the emotional bond with a primary caregiver

attachment styles

characteristic patterns of reacting to the presence and absence of one’s primary caregiver

secure attachment style

infants may or may not be distressed when their primary caregiver leaves the room, but they respond positively when the caregiver returns.

avoidant attachment style

not distressed when the caregiver leaves the room, and they ignore the caregiver when the caregiver returns

ambivalent attachment style

distressed when the caregiver leaves, but when the caregiver returns, the infant continues to be distressed and refuses to be calmed or comforted

disorganized attachment style

show no clear and consistent pattern of responses to the caregiver’s absence or their return.

temperament

a biologically based pattern of attentional and emotional reactivity

nature vs nurture in attachment styles

nature plays a role in determining how infants react to situations, including the absence and return of primary caregiver. nurture plays a role too.

internal working model

a set of beliefs about the way relationships work. may be carried forward into adulthood and have long-lasting consequences.

realistic to relativistic

first moral reasoning shift. young children regard moral rules as real, inviolable truths that are “out there” in the world. as they mature, children begin to realize that some moral rules are human inventions and that people can agree to adopt them, change them, or abandon them

prescriptions to principles

second moral reasoning shift in children. young children think of moral rules as guidelines for specific actions in specific situations. as they mature, they come to see that these rules are expressions of more general principles, meaning that specific rules can be abandoned or modified when they fail to uphold the general principle.

outcomes to intentions

third shift in moral reasoning for children. unintentional action causes great harm in the young child. as they mature, children see that the morality of an action is critically dependent on the actor’s state of mind.

preconventional stage

a stage of moral development in which the morality of an action is primarily determined by its consequences for the actor

conventional stage

a stage of moral development in which the morality of an action is primarily determined by the extent to which it conforms to social rules

postconventional stage

a stage of moral development in which the morality of an action is determined by a set of general principles that reflect core values

adulthood

the stage of development that begins around 18 to 21 years and lasts for the remainder of life

socioemotional selectivity theory

younger adults are mainly motivated to acquire and remember information that will be useful to them in the future. older adults are mainly motivated to acquire and remember information that brings them emotional satisfaction in the present. young people = invest time ; old people = spend time

adolescence

the period of development that begins with the onset of sexual maturity (11-14) and lasts until beginning of adulthood (18-21)

puberty

the onset of bodily changes associated with sexual maturity

primary sex characteristics

anatomical structures that change at puberty and are directly involved in reproduction

secondary sex characteristics

anatomical structures that change at puberty but are not directly involved in reproduction

trust vs. mistrust

children develop a belief that the environment can be counted on to meet their basic physiological and social needs. key event: feeding. birth to 12-18 months.

autonomy vs shame/doubt

children learn what they can control and develop a sense of free will and a corresponding sense of regret and sorrow for inappropriate use of self-control. key event: toilet training. 18 months to 3 years.

initiative vs guilt

children learn to begin action, to explore, to imagine, and to feel remorse for their actions. key event: independence. 3-6 years

industry vs inferiority

children learn to things well or correctly in comparison to a standard or to others. key event: school. 6-12 years

identity vs role confusion

adolescents develop a sense of self in relation to others and to their own thoughts and desires. key events: peer relationships. 12-18 years

intimacy vs isolation

individuals develop the ability to give and receive love; begin to make long-term commitment to relationships. key event: love relationships. 19-40 years