Exam 2 : Social Psychology

Racism

prejudice and discrimination based on a person’s racial background

Implicit Racism

Operates unconsciously and unintentionally (p. 152)

Race

Is a social construction, not genetic reality (p. 173)

Sexism

prejudice and discrimination based on a person’s gender, or as institutional and cultural practices that promote the domination of one gender over another

Ambivalent Sexism

Consists of hostile sexism, characterized by negative and resentful feelings about women’s abilities, value, and challenge to men’s power and benevolent sexism, characterized by affectionate and chivalrous feelings founded on the potentially patronizing belief that women need and deserve protection

Hostile Sexism

Negative and resentful feelings about women’s abilities, value, and challenge to men’s power

Benevolent Sexism

Characterized by affectionate and chivalrous feelings founded by beliefs that women need protection

Stereotypes

beliefs or associations that link whole groups of people with certain traits or characteristics (There are stereotypes based on gender, race, and much more)

Stereotypes about warmth

Influenced by perceived competition

Stereotypes about competence

Influenced by relative status

Stereotype Threat

Concern about being evaluated based on negative stereotypes about one’s group

Social Identity Threat

General devaluing of a person’s identity or social group

Disidentify

To dismiss the domain as no longer relevant to their self-esteem and identity

Stereotype Content Model

Proposes that stereotypes about competence of a group are influenced by the relative status of that group. Model that shows many group stereotypes vary along warmth and competence (e.g., the elderly are high on warmth but low on competence)

Prejudice

negative attitudes about others because of their connection to a social group

Discrimination

negative behaviors directed against people because of their membership in a particular group

Intersectionality

Applies to people who exist of multiple minority groups (e.g. black and female)

Socialization

The processes by which people learn the norms, rules, and information of a culture or group

Social Categorization

Sorting of people into groups on the basis of gender, race, age, and other common attributes (p. 172) (Saves a lot of time by making automatic inferences but leads to overestimating differences between groups and underestimate differences within groups)

Ingroups

Groups we identify with (may be our country, religion, political party, etc…)

Social Dominance Orientation

Those who have a desire to see their ingroups dominant over other groups

Ingroup Favoritism

A tendency to favor our ingroups in decisions

Outgroups

Groups we do not identify with (may be someone from another country, religion, political party, etc…)

Outgroup Homogeneity Effect

Where perceivers assume that there is greater similarity among members of outgroups than members of their own group (they believe people within group are more different than those out of group) (p. 174)

Minimal Groups

Where people are categorized on the basis of trivial, minimally important similarities

System Justification Theory

Asserts that people are motivated to defend and justify the existing social, political, and economic conditions

Superordinate Goals

Mutual goals that can only be achieved through cooperation between groups.

Realistic Conflict Theory

The view that direct competition for limited resources breeds hostility between groups

Social Identity Theory

We strive to enhance our self-esteem which is composed of our personal identity and our social identity through personal achievements or through affiliation to successful groups (p. 178)

Collectivists

More likely to value their connectedness and interdependence with the people and groups around them (East Asian culture is more collectivist than Westerners who are individualistic)

Subliminal Presentations

Information presented so quickly that perceivers do not even realize that they have been exposed to it.

Contact Hypothesis

Contact between members of rival groups can reduce intergroup prejudice

Attitudes

Positive and negative reactions to various persons, objects, and ideas

Self-Esteem

An attitude we hold about ourselves

Attraction

A positive attitude toward another person

Discrimination

A negative attitude directed against members of certain groups

Self-Report Measures

Direct and straightforward

Attitude Scales

Multiple-item questionnaire like the Likert scale

Bogus Pipeline

A device that supposedly records a subject’s true feelings physiologically, like a lie-detector test (Increases honesty in answers by participants)

Facial Electromyograph (EMG)

Records facial muscular changes to track emotions

Implicit Attitudes

Attitudes that we cannot self-report

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

A test to measure implicit attitudes and biases

Evaluative Conditioning

Shows that implicit and explicit attitudes toward neutral objects can form by their association with positive and negative stimuli

Theory of Planned Behavior

Says that our attitudes influence our behavior through a process of deliberate decision-making, and their impact is limited in four respects

First Respect

Behavior is influenced less by general attitudes than by attitudes toward a specific behavior

Second Respect

Behavior is influenced not only by attitudes but by subjective norms—our beliefs about what others think we should do

Third Respect

Attitudes give rise to behavior only when we perceive the behavior to be within our control

Fourth Respect

Although attitudes contribute to an intention, people often cannot act on them

Persuasion

Changing someone’s attitude

Central Route to Persuasion

When someone thinks critically about a message and are influenced by the strength and quality of the arguments (High ability and motivation)

Peripheral Route to Persuasion

When someone does not think critically about the contents of a message but instead focus on informal cues (Low ability or motivation)

Sleeper Effect

The delayed persuasive impact of a low-credibility communicator

Need For Cognition (NC)

People who enjoy effortful cognitive activities (They like to work on confusing or hard problems)

Inoculation Hypothesis

Exposure to weak persuasion will decrease the strength of future persuasion attempts

Psychological Reactance

When someone tries to change their attitude according to the situation if their freedom is threatened

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

A powerful motive to maintain cognitive consistency can give rise to irrational, sometimes maladaptive behavior

Insufficient Justification

When you’ve done something you don’t think was justified, and you change your mindset to make it worth it (In the experiment, caused people to lie and say it was more enjoyable to cope)

Insufficient Deterrence

When you’ve done something you don’t think was justified, and you make the situation seem bad

Group

A set of individuals who have direct interactions with each other and share a set of goals

Roles

Someone’s set of expected behaviors

Instrumental Role

Helps the group achieve its task

Expressive Role

Provides emotional support and maintain morale

Norms

Rules of conduct for members of a group

Group Cohesion

The degree of group unity (Members feel commitment to the group task, feel positively toward the other group members, feel group pride, and interact with the group)

Social Facilitation

Helping performance on easy tasks but hurting performance on difficult tasks

Mere Presence

Being near another group member (encourages social facilitation)

Evaluation Apprehension Theory

Performance will be enhanced or impaired if people are around who can judge

Distraction-conflict Theory

Being distracted while working on a task creates attentional conflict

Social Loafing

People in groups often slack off individually

Collective Effort Model

Individuals will try harder on a collective task if they think the efforts will help them achieve outcomes they personally value

Deindividuation

The loss of a person’s sense of individuality and the reduction of constraints against deviant behavior

Social Identity Model of Deindividuation Effects (SIDE)

Whether deindividuation has a positive or negative effect directly reflects the characteristics and norms of the group immediately around them

Process Loss

The reduction of group productivity due to problems in the dynamics of a group

Process Gain

When the group outperform even the best members

Tasks

Different group tasks that could happen

Additive Task

The group product is the sum of all members contributions

Conjunctive Task

The group product is determined by the individual with the poorest performance

Disjunctive Task

The group product is determined by the individual with the best performance

Brainstorming

Was designed to enhance the creativity and productivity of problem-solving groups

Brainstorming Rule 1

Rule 1 : Express all ideas that come to mind even if they sound crazy

Brainstorming Rule 2

Rule 2 : The more ideas the better

Brainstorming Rule 3

Rule 3 : Don’t worry whether the ideas are good or bad and don’t criticize anyone’s ideas; they can be evaluated later

Brainstorming Rule 4

Rule 4 : All ideas belong