Europe Part 1 & 2 Vocab

Byzantine Peasantry

Economy was the strongest whenever the economy supported a large class of free peasants who owned small plots of land. This group of people also cultivated their lands in hopes of improving their families fortunes

Inquisition

Officials who went into town to conduct trials.

Eg. if you ratted your neighbors/friends they burned if 2(or more) people also did.

Eg 2. If you ratted yourself out = penance

• Burned Witches

• Couldn’t make you bleed - but punishments were cruel.

This group served as the backbone for the Byzantine Military System

The peasants

Did free peasants become Slaves?

No

If medieval peasants didn’t become slaves, were they entirely free?

No - sometimes even bound to the land and forbidden to leave without permission from their lords. They worked for share-cropping arrangements, but it was barely enough to gain independence and often worked for years. Or even life.

Byzantine Manufactoring SIlk

This industry was so important to the Byzantine empire that the government closely monitored every step in it’s production/sale. This was so impactful to the economy, so, Byzantinum became the principal supplier of this fashionable cloth

What city served as a major hub for Eurasian trade?

Constantinople

How did Constantinople serve as a major hub for Eurasian trade?

Acted as a central clearinghouse linking Central Asia, Russia, Scandinavia, Northern Europe, and the Mediterranean basin. Maintained direct commercial links with manufactures/merchants in Central Asia, Russia, Scandinavia, Northern Europe, and the lands of the Black Sea / Mediterranean Basin.

After the Islamic conquests which counterparts did Muslim merchants regularly deal with

Those in Persia, Syria, Palestine and Egypt

What was the bezant, and what role did banking play in Byzantine trade?

The gold coin of the Byzantine Empire, widely recognized across international trade routes

How was banking in Byzantium

Issued loans and formed business partnerships to fuel trade ventures and revive Silk Road commerce. 

Byzantine Manufacturing Crafts

What key luxury goods were produced by Byzantine craft workers?

Glassware, linen, wool textiles, gems, jewelry, and fine metalwork in silver and gold. 

Heavy Plow

What was the heavy plow, and how did it impact medieval European agriculture?

Introduced around the 8th century; featured an iron-tipped blade and moldboard to break up tough northern soil and root systems. Greatly increased agricultural yield, especially during the Carolingian era. 

Horse Collar

Why was the invention of the horse collar significant for medieval farming?

Replaced slow-moving oxen with faster horses to pull heavy plows, expanding the total amount of land under cultivation. 

Three-Field System

What was the three-field system?

An agricultural crop rotation method where fields were rotated to restore soil nutrients, maintain fertility, and increase overall food production.

Trade in Western Europe

How did trade operate in Western Europe during the early medieval era?

Small-scale exchange through local markets, fairs, and itinerant peddlers. 

Christian merchants in Italy, Spain, and North Africa connected Europe to broader Islamic trade networks.

By 1000 CE, crops from the Islamic world spread throughout Mediterranean Europe.

Norse Seafarers

Who were the Norse seafarers, and how did they impact early medieval commerce?

Active merchant-raiders (kinsmen of Vikings) traveling between Eastern Europe, the Baltic, and the Mediterranean. Traded furs, fish, wheat, wine, and swords along Russian rivers down to the Black Sea, connecting Western Europe with Byzantine and Abbasid economies. 

Life in Constantinople

Employed 20,000 paid state officials. Aristocrats lived in palaces; women lived in separate apartments and rarely attended banquets. Poor lived in dangerous, shared tenements. Included public baths, taverns, restaurants, theaters.

Feudalism

Term previously used for political/social order based on hierarchy of lords & vassals. Scholars are abandoning the term because it distorts complex society where local political/military elites worked out ad-hoc ways to organize territory.

Serfs

Semifree individuals, neither slaves nor fully free. Owed obligations to lords whose land they cultivated (males worked ~3 days a week, paid fees to marry a serf of another lord), but had land rights passed down to heirs.

The Papacy

Roman Catholic Church benefited from this kind of leadership. This leadership survived even after Roman fell and it claimed spiritual authority over all formally embraced by the empire -the pope is the ultimate church authority

Pope Gregory I (the Great) saved Rome from Lombards, reasserted papal primacy, pushed sacrament of penance, and converted England.

Frankish alliance

traded backing/recognition/crowns (e.g., crowning Charlemagne) for protection against Lombards.

Patriarch of Constantinople

Highest ecclesiastical official in Byzantine Church, counterpart to Rome. Instructed patriarchs, bishops, and priests to deliver sermons that supported imperial policy and encouraged obedience to imperial authorities.

Iconoclasm

Divisive ecclesiastical policy started by Emperor Leo III (717–741 CE) in 726 CE.Believed worshipping icons (paintings of Jesus, saints, religious figures) was sinful, so he destroyed images and banned them in churches. Abandoned in 843 CE.

Weakened the Byzantine, because government messing with Religon is a big mistake.

Monasticism

Originated in Egypt (2nd–3rd c.) as ascetics lived in deserts. Became popular across Italy, Spain, Gaul, and British Isles after Christianity was legalized in 4th c. Early communities each developed their own rules and priorities.

St. Benedict of Nursia (480–547 CE) WEST

Strengthened early monastic movement with discipline and purpose via Benedict's Rule. Required monks to take vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience under an abbot. Divided days into prayer, meditation, manual labor, and study.w

St. Basil EAST

St. Basil of Caesarea (329–379 CE) in Basilian monasteries: monks/nuns gave away personal belongings to live communally, obeyed elected superiors, and devoted themselves to work and prayer.

Asceticism

Denial of wealth, pleasures, and emotional attachments to fully focus on spiritual matters. Drew inspiration from Christian ascetics in Egypt, Persia, and Mesopotamia practicing celibacy, fasting, and prayer

St. Scholastica

Benedict's twin sister (nun). Provided an adaptation of Benedict's Rule that provided guidance for the religious life of women living in convents.

Sts. Cyril & Methodius

Two Greek missionary brothers from Thessaloniki (mid-9th century) to the Slavs in Bulgaria/Moravia. Devised Cyrillic alphabet for previously illiterate Slavic people, adapted from Greek script to represent Slavic sounds.

Prince Vladimir of Kiev

In 989 CE converted to Orthodox Christianity and ordered his subjects to convert as well. Prompted rapid flow of Byzantine influence into Russia (Cyrillic writing, literacy, and Orthodox missions).

The Great Schism

Eastern patriarchs wanted major Christian regions to be independent; Western popes insisted on absolute authority over all Christendom. Eastern Orthadox and Roman catholic churches split.

Fallow

Unplanted - (referring to farmland left unseeded during a growing cycle to restore soil fertility).

Reason for Byzantine Decline

Crusaders conquered Constantinople in 1204, subjected the city to a ruthless sack, and installed a Roman Catholic regime that survived until 1261. The empire never fully recovered and lumbered along in serious decline until Ottoman Turks toppled it in 1453. Also invaded by Norman adventurers with papal support.

The 4th Crusade (1202–1204)

Went badly astray. Venetian authorities contracted to transport ~30,000 crusaders to Palestine. When crusaders lacked sufficient funds, Venetians persuaded them to provide military services in exchange for transport—first conquering Zara, then sacking Constantinople in 1204. Never made it to Palestine.

Seljuqs

Played a significant role in the decline of the Byzantine Empire through their invasion of Anatolia and victory at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071.

Manzikert (1071 CE)

A massive military clash where Seljuk Turks completely crushed the Byzantine empire in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey).

Fall of Constantinople

Venetians attacked during the 4th Crusade, conquered the city, subjected it to a ruthless sack, and installed a Roman Catholic regime (survived until 1261). Byzantium never fully recovered and lumbered along in decline until Ottoman Turks toppled it in 1453.

Holy Roman Empire

Formed as Carolingian empire faded in 9th century and local counts/dukes took responsibility for order. Otto of Saxony built a larger state in northern Germany, went to Italy to protect the church, and was proclaimed emperor by Pope John XII in 962 CE. Conflict with the Papacy prevented emperors from building a strong, dynamic state.

Papal States

A good-sized territory in central Italy ruled directly by the popes. In northern Italy, bishops of major cities also took initiative in organizing public life. 

Italian States

By 12th century, a series of prosperous city-states (Florence, Bologna, Genoa, Milan, Venice) dominated urban districts and surrounding hinterlands. Meanwhile, Norman adventurers intervened in southern Italy starting in year 999, conquering territories claimed by Byzantines and Muslims. 

States in Iberia

Muslim conquerors ruled most of the peninsula from 8th to 11th century; only small Christian states survived in the north. By late 13th century, Christian kingdoms of Castile, Aragon, and Portugal controlled most of Iberia, leaving only the small Kingdom of Granada in Muslim hands.

(Christian kingdoms (Castile, Aragon, Portugal) reconquering Iberia down to Granada.)

Growth of Western Agriculture

Four key factors: 1) Opening new lands (clearing forests, draining swamps), 2) Improved techniques, 3) New tools/technologies (watermills, heavy plows, horseshoes, horse collars), and 4) Introduction of new crops (beans, durium wheat, spinach, citrus, etc.). Led to higher yields, tax revenues, and population pressure.

Urbanization

Abundant food supply supported large numbers of urban residents—artisans, craftsworkers, professionals, and merchants. Peasants/serfs flocked from countryside; Roman-era cities (Paris, London, Toledo) grew and new centers emerged (Venice to Bergen).

Textile Production

Manufacturing concentrated on wool textiles, especially in Italy and Flanders (spinning, weaving, dyeing). By 12th century, Counts of Champagne in northern France sponsored near year-round fairs for cross-European trade exchange. 

True or False Europe = Decentralized Wool

True

True or False Byzantine = Centralized Silk

True

Mediterranean Trade

Ports of Amalfi and Venice (10th c.) traded with Byzantine and Muslim partners. Network expanded to Genoa, Pisa, Naples, exchanging salt, olive oil, wine, wool fabrics, and glass for eastern luxury goods (gems, spices, silk). Italian merchants established colonies in ports across Mediterranean and Black Sea

Hanseatic League

An association of trading cities in northern seas (Baltic & North Sea) stretching from Novgorod to London (Poland, N. Germany, Scandinavia). Dominated trade in grain, fish, furs, timber, and pitch; linked via rivers to Mediterranean trade. 

Three Estates

Social order divided into "Those who pray" (clergy loyal to Church), "Those who fight" (nobles trained in equestrian/military arts), and "Those who worked" (vast majority: peasants cultivating land dependent on lords for protection). Reflected political, social, and economic inequality.

Chivalry

Informal code of ethics/behavior for nobles, promoted by Church to curb internal fighting. Candidate placed sword on altar to pledge service to God; elevated causes of order, piety, and Christian faith over personal wealth/power. Encouraged refined manners and courtly behavior

Troubadours

Class of traveling poets, minstrels, and entertainers active in S. France and N. Italy, heavily patronized by aristocratic women (like Eleanor of Aquitaine). Sang of courtly love, drawing inspiration from Muslim Spain's love poetry.

Charters

Town inhabitants demanded charters of incorporation from local lords to exempt them from political regulation, abolish taxes, and manage their own affairs. By mid-12th century, student/teacher academic guilds also secured charters guaranteeing rights. 

-Document granted that authorized cities to do stuff. Granted cities independence from Nobles, and it weakened the feudal system and gave power to the monarch (the king)

Guilds

Organizations of merchants/craftsmen regulating production and sales of goods. Provided social infrastructure, mutual support, drinking parties, financial aid for sick members, and admitted women (some all-female). 

Urban Women

In countryside, women continued traditional household/agricultural chores. Cities offered new opportunities: worked as butchers, bakers, shoemakers, innkeepers, merchants, physicians. Dominated textile and decorative art occupations. 

Cathedral Schools

Organized in early 11th century by bishops/archbishops in France and Italy. Established formal Latin curricula focusing on liberal arts (literature, philosophy), reading the Bible, Church Fathers (St. Augustine), and classical authors (Plato). Advanced instruction in law, medicine, theology. 

Universities (mid-12th century)

Academic guilds formed by students and teachers to guarantee fair treatment, regulate room/board rates, and demand quality teaching. Faculty guilds won rights to bestow degrees (teaching licenses). Transformed cathedral schools into universities. 

Aristotle

Rediscovery of Aristotle's works in High Middle Ages transformed European thought. Western scholars obtained Latin translations from Byzantine scholars and Muslim philosophers (who translated works into Arabic). Translated back to Latin, making Aristotle accessible to Western scholars. 

Scholasticism

13th-century theological movement synthesizing Christian beliefs with logical rigor of Greek philosophy (Aristotle). Reinterpreted inherited beliefs in light of reason and advanced knowledge. St. Thomas Aquinas was the most famous scholastic theologian. 

Academic philosophy basically that was the bridge between modern thought and medieval thought

St. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274)

Most famous Scholastic theologian; taught at Univ. of Paris. Viewed Aristotle and Christian faith as complementary: Aristotle explained human reasoning, while Christianity explained divine purpose. Identified Aristotle's conscious agent with God. 

Argued the human mind could understand basically

Sacraments

Holy rituals bringing spiritual blessings. Church recognized 7 sacraments (including baptism, matrimony, penance, Eucharist). Eucharist was most popular, commemorating Jesus's Last Supper. Observed weekly or daily by devout believers. 

Saints

Medieval Europeans expressed adoration for saints through veneration of their physical remains and relics. Pilgrims traveled long distances to honor saints (e.g., relics of St. Peter & St. Paul in Rome).

Virgin Mary

Mother of Jesus and most popular saint in Middle Ages. Personified ideal womanhood, love, and sympathy. Legend claimed she saved a criminal from hanging when he called her name. Hundreds of churches dedicated to her (e.g., Notre Dame = "Our Lady"). 

Relics

Physical remains or personal items of holy figures (hair, bones, clothing, Crown of Thorns) associated with Jesus and Mary. Believed to hold spiritual powers. Though collecting them led to fraud, people continued to treasure them. 

Pilgrimage

Travel to honor saints/relics (similar to Muslim Hajj). Main destinations: Rome (St. Peter/Paul), Santiago de Compostela (St. James), and Jerusalem. Supported an entire travel industry (inns, tour guides, guidebooks warning of scams). 

Franciscans

Mendicant (beggar) order founded by St. Francis (1182–1226). Friars rejected material wealth, lived in poverty, begged for food/necessities, and preached in growing towns to care for poor and combat heresy.

Dominicans

Mendicant order founded by St. Dominic (1170–1221). Held no personal possessions, begged for food, and addressed urban migrants to combat heterodox movements and persuade heretics to return to Catholic Church. 

-education

Heresies

Alternative religious movements (12th–13th c.) rejecting Catholic Church authority and protesting materialism. Active in S. France and N. Italy (e.g., Waldensians). Despised corrupt clergy, advocated simple lives, asserted laymen's right to preach/administer sacraments

Reconquista

Christian crusade to recapture Spain from Muslims. Timeline: 1060s (began), 1085 (pushed to Toledo), 1150 (recaptured Lisbon), 1st half of 13th c. (took most of peninsula), 1492 (conquered Granada, completing Reconquista). Driven by religious, economic, and military factors. 

Crusades

"Holy War" where warriors "took up the cross" to fight Muslims in Mediterranean and pagans in Baltic. Refers specifically to Roman Catholic campaigns to recapture Palestine and Jerusalem. Launched by Pope Urban II in 1095 at Council of Clermont.

Urban II

Pope who launched First Crusade in 1095 at Council of Clermont. Called for Christian knights to seize Holy Land, promising salvation for those who fell in battle. Sparked widespread response, including Peter the Hermit's ragtag army. 

The First Crusade

French/Norman nobles organized military expedition in late 1096. Captured Edessa, Antioch (1097–1098), and Jerusalem (1099), creating Christian Crusader states. Victory aided by division among Muslim rivals. 

Third Crusade

"Kings' Crusade" launched to recapture Jerusalem after Saladin took it. Led by Richard the Lionheart, Philip II of France, Frederick Barbarossa. Richard captured Acre and defeated Saladin at Arsuf, but signed Treaty of Jaffa: Jerusalem stayed under Muslim control, but Christian pilgrims allowed safe access. 

Saladin

Also known as Salah-ah-din; Muslim leader who recaptured Jerusalem from Crusader control in 1187. 

Impact of the Crusades

Military failure, but massive commercial/cultural exchange. Europeans gained access to Islamic science, astronomy, Arabic numerals, paper production, sugar, spices, silk, carpets, and Aristotle’s works. Integrated Western Europe into broader Eastern Hemisphere trade.