Body Systems

Top 5 leading causes of death for women in Australia (2020)

1. Dementia

2. Coronary Heart Disease (CHD)

3. Stroke

4. Lung Cancer

5. Breast Cancer

Top 5 leading causes of death for men in Australia (2020)

1. Coronary Heart Disease (CHD)
2. Dementia
3. Lung Cancer
4. Stroke
5. Prostate Cancer

Key risk factors contributing to the global disease burden (Lim et al., 2012)

• High blood pressure
• Tobacco use
• Alcohol consumption
• Air pollution
• High BMI
• Physical inactivity

Four main structural regions of the brain and their core functions

• Hindbrain: Sustains vital life functions (brainstem, cerebellum)
• Midbrain: Coordinates movement and arousal
• Forebrain: Regulates emotion, memory, and reward (thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system)
• Cerebrum: Higher processing and control (cerebral cortex, basal ganglia)

Functional roles of the cerebral cortex lobes

• Frontal Lobe: Executive functions and decision-making
• Temporal Lobe: Language and visuospatial processing
• Parietal & Occipital Lobes: Sensory integration and visual processing

Primary functions of dopamine, serotonin, and GABA

• Dopamine: Mood regulation, alertness, and reinforcement/reward
• Serotonin: Sleep, mood stabilization, appetite, and pain perception
• GABA: Major inhibitory neurotransmitter mediating motor control, vision, and anxiety regulation

Functional differences between arteries, arterioles, and veins

• Arteries: Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart
• Arterioles: Smaller arterial branches that deliver blood to organs and tissues
• Veins: Return deoxygenated blood back toward the heart

Primary vs. Secondary Hypertension

• Primary Hypertension: High blood pressure primarily attributed to lifestyle, environmental, and behavioral factors
• Secondary Hypertension: Elevated blood pressure directly caused by an identifiable underlying medical condition

Anatomical division of the respiratory tract

• Upper Respiratory Tract: Nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, and larynx
• Lower Respiratory Tract: Trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and lungs

Central nervous system (CNS) regions governing autonomic control

• Hypothalamus: Acts as the principal integrator and central regulator ('the boss')
• Cerebral Cortex: Provides conscious and cognitive influence
• Limbic System: Integrates emotional input
• Brainstem: Controls vital autonomic reflexes (pupil size, heart rate, respiration, blood pressure)
• Spinal Cord: Mediates autonomic reflexes (urination, defecation, sexual reflexes)

Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic Nervous System

• Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS): Drives arousal, mobilization, and the 'fight-or-flight' response
• Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS): Promotes relaxation, energy conservation, and 'rest-and-recovery'
• Homeostasis: Maintained via continuous, dynamic balance between both divisions

Major classes of white blood cells (leukocytes) and their roles

• Neutrophils & Macrophages: Engulf and destroy foreign pathogens via phagocytosis
• Eosinophils: Target and destroy parasitic infections
• Basophils: Release histamine during inflammatory and allergic responses
• Lymphocytes: Mediate adaptive immunity (Helper T, Cytotoxic T, Plasma B, Memory B cells)
• Natural Killer (NK) Cells: Detect and destroy abnormal or infected host cells

Pathophysiological distinction between Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes

• Type 1 Diabetes: Autoimmune condition preventing insulin production; typically childhood onset with no established prevention
• Type 2 Diabetes: Ineffective cellular use or inadequate production of insulin; strongly associated with high BMI, physical inactivity, and genetic predisposition

Immune system response to acute vs. chronic stress

• Acute Stress: Temporarily stimulates and enhances immune functioning
• Chronic Stress: Depletes immune resources, suppresses T cells and NK cells, and impairs overall resistance

Distal vs. proximal stressors in Minority Stress Theory

• Distal Stressors: Objective, external stressors such as systemic discrimination and structural inequalities
• Proximal Stressors: Subjective, internal processes including internalized stigma, hypervigilance, and anticipated rejection

Health correlates of perceived discrimination (Pascoe & Smart Richman, 2009)

• Mental Health: $r = -0.16$
• Physical Health: $r = -0.13$
• Stress Response: $r = -0.11$
• Health Behaviors: $r = -0.18$