Ethics, Justice, Utilitarianism, Kantian Duty Ethics, and Poverty

Flashcards covering introductory ethics definitions, consequentialism vs nonconsequentialism, types of justice, distributive justice theories, act vs rule utilitarianism, Kantian duty ethics, and definitions/causes of poverty.

How is ethics defined in the notes?

The study of morality, or what is good, bad, right, wrong in a moral sense.

In ordinary language, how are the terms "moral" and "ethical" treated?

They are treated as interchangeable (as are "immoral" and "unethical").

What does the term "amoral" mean?

Having no moral sense, or being indifferent to right and wrong.

What does the term "nonmoral" mean?

Out of the realm of moral altogether.

What do "moral" and "immoral" mean in moral language?

"Moral" means what is good or right, while "immoral" means what is bad or wrong.

What should "good" or "right" involve according to the notes?

Pleasure, happiness, excellence, and/or lead to harmony and creativity.

What will "bad" or "wrong" involve according to the notes?

Pain, unhappiness, lack of excellence, and/or lead to disharmony and lack of creativity.

What defines a consequentialist ethical theory?

Determines ethical behavior by examining consequences.

What are the two major consequentialist theories or versions listed in the notes?

Ethical egoism and Utilitarianism.

What defines a nonconsequentialist ethical theory?

Not based on or concerned with consequences to determine ethical behavior; uses some other standard (usually considered "higher").

What are the two major nonconsequentialist theories or versions listed in the notes?

Divine command theory and Kant's duty ethics.

What is exchange justice?

Justice that has to do with equal exchange of remuneration for products or services.

What is distributive justice?

Justice that has to do with the distribution of good and bad based upon merit or desert, need and ability, or according to the equality of human beings.

What is social justice?

Justice that has to do with the obligation to be just and fair to all members of society or to society in general.

What is retributive justice?

Justice based upon the "eye for eye, tooth for a tooth" philosophy (reward and punishment).

What four theories of distributive justice are outlined in the notes?

Egalitarianism, Rawls' Theory of Justice, Desert-Based Principles, and Libertarianism.

How is Egalitarianism defined in the theories of distributive justice?

The idea that everyone deserves the same rights, freedoms, and chances in life, no matter their race, gender, or money.

How is Rawls' Theory of Justice defined?

"Justice as fairness": A just society should be built on principles that free and rational people would choose in a hypothetical, unbiased starting position to fairly distribute rights, liberties, and economic benefits.

What are Desert-Based Principles of distributive justice?

The principle that individuals should receive rewards, resources, or punishments based on what they morally or socially deserve.

How is Libertarianism defined in the context of distributive justice?

Prioritizes personal autonomy, voluntary social ties, and a strong distrust of coercive institutional or state authority.

Which two philosophers created Utilitarianism?

Jeremy Bentham ($1748-1832$) and John Stuart Mill ($1806-1873$).

What is the primary principle of Act Utilitarianism?

"Everyone should perform that act which will bring about the greatest good(or happiness) for everyone affected by the act"

Why can Act Utilitarians not establish rules in advance?

Because all situations and people are different, so they must decide whether an act is right or wrong in this situation and at this time.

What are the four specific criticisms of Act Utilitarianism listed in the notes?

1. Difficult to determine consequences for others
2. Impracticality of beginning anew
3. Past experiences?
4. Difficulty of educating the young or uninitiated

What is the primary principle of Rule Utilitarianism?

"Everyone should follow that moral rule which will bring about the greatest good (or happiness) for everyone affected by the act"

How do Rule Utilitarians justify setting up moral rules that apply to all human beings?

By using experience and careful reasoning, claiming there are enough similar human motives, actions, and situations to justify setting up rules.

What are the specific criticisms of Rule Utilitarianism listed in the notes?

1. Difficult to determine consequences for others
2. Can rules indeed cover all situations? (e.g. "never kill except in self-defense")

What criticisms are shared by both Act and Rule Utilitarianism?

1. Majority rules? (E.g. children/testing/knowledge)
2. "Ends-justifies-the-means"? (E.g. urban development)

What years span Immanuel Kant's life, and what are the two most important human attributes according to him?

Immanuel Kant lived from $1724-1804$. The two most important human attributes are "good will and reason".

What is "good will" in Kant's ethics?

The uniquely human ability to act in accordance with the rules, laws, or principles regardless of interests or consequences.

Why is freedom crucial in Kant's ethical framework?

Because "whenever my behavior is biologically determined or socially conditioned it is not truly free".

How is the moral worth of an action determined in Kantian ethics?

It is determined not by the consequences that flow from it, but by the intention from which that act is done.

What three conditions must be met for a moral rule to be valid under Kant's ethics?

1. Must be logically consistent
2. Be universalizable (not violate the categorical imperative)
3. Not violate the practical imperative

What is Kant's categorical imperative?

An act is immoral if the rule that would authorize it cannot be made into a rule for all human beings to follow.

What is Kant's practical imperative?

No human being should be thought or used merely as a means for someone else's end (each human being is a unique end in himself or herself).

How do Kantians respond to critics who ask about conflicts of duties and consistency?

Kantians reply with the "reversibility criterion".

What is the definition of Absolute Poverty?

A socioeconomic condition in which people are unable, for whatever reason, to meet their fundamental necessities of life.

What is the definition of Relative Poverty?

Poverty that is relative to the standards and expectations of people in a particular society at a particular time.

What is Official Poverty?

Poverty as defined by government-imposed standards of measure.

What is the relationship between family income and education according to the notes?

There is a direct relationship: "As family income goes up the likelihood the education goes up".

What are the 2026 Poverty Guidelines for household sizes 1 through 8 in the 48 Contiguous States?

1 person: $15,960; 2 persons: $21,640; 3 persons: $27,320; 4 persons: $33,000; 5 persons: $38,680; 6 persons: $44,360; 7 persons: $50,040; 8 persons: $55,720.

What is the "Culture of Poverty" explanation, and what type of explanation is it?

An individual-level explanation that focuses on the norms, values, and behaviors (culture) of the poor, identifying dysfunctional culture as the primary cause of poverty.

What is the "Cycle of Poverty" explanation, and what type of explanation is it?

A structural-level explanation that focuses on major institutions in society (government, economy, family, education, religion) and identifies people's experiences within an "institutional web" as the primary cause of poverty.

What is the "Political Economy" explanation of poverty?

A structural-level explanation that focuses on economic structures and government policies/regulation, identifying deindustrialization and uneven economic development as the primary cause of poverty.