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Adverbs and adverbial phrases

Words or phrases that modify adjectives or add emphasis, conveying a speaker’s attitudes, values, feelings, and opinions.

Back-channeling

Feedback in words or sounds that shows a listener is paying attention (e.g., “um” or “agreed”).

Contraction

A shortened word or phrase in which an apostrophe marks omitted letters.

Deixis

Words that locate a conversation in a particular space or context that outsiders may not understand.

Discourse markers

Words or phrases that mark boundaries between parts of a conversation or signal a change of subject.

Elision

The omission of sounds or syllables that are normally present in a word.

Ellipsis

The omission of words in speech or writing when the meaning is still clear from context.

Transcription or transcript

A written record of spoken language using symbols and markings to represent features of speech.

False starts

When a speaker begins an utterance, recognizes an error, and restarts or reformulates what they are saying.

Fixed expressions

Common, familiar phrases that help maintain shared cultural understanding and make communication predictable.

Culture

The values and information that shape life in a society.

Colloquial

Casual, everyday language used in conversation.

Cliched

Something used so often that it is no longer original, surprising, or interesting.

Hedges and vague questions

Strategies used to avoid being too direct or to soften what is being said.

Metalanguage

Language used to talk about language, including explaining or correcting an error.

Phatic communication

Communication, such as greetings or small talk, that serves a social purpose rather than providing information.

Diversity

Differences in the conventions and language used in spoken and written English.

Modality

Language that expresses possibilities, choices, or degrees of certainty and can help participants negotiate compromises.

Non-fluency features

Features of unscripted speech, such as fillers and extended sounds, that give speakers thinking time or help them continue speaking.

Voiceless pause

A period of silence in a conversation that participants perceive as a break.

Non-standard English

Language constructions that differ from standard written forms and are commonly found in everyday speech.

Repetition

The use of words or phrases multiple times for emphasis or to gain thinking time while speaking.

Tag questions

Short questions added to a statement to prompt a response from the listener.

Vague expressions

Imprecise expressions that can soften requests and encourage engagement, but may be unsuitable when exact information is needed.