Johns Hopkins Introduction to Psychology Firestone Exam #2

memory

the ability to store and retrieve information over time

encoding

the process of transforming what we perceive, think, or feel into an enduring memory

storage

the process of maintaining information in memory over time

retrieval

the process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored

semantic encoding

the process of relating new information in a meaningful way to knowledge that is already stored in memory

visual imagery encoding

the process of storing new information by converting it into mental pictures

organizational encoding

the process of categorizing information according to the relationships among a series of items

sensory memory

a type of storage that holds sensory information for a few seconds or less

iconic memory

a fast-decaying store of visual information

echoic memory

a fast-decaying store of auditory information

short-term memory

a type of storage that holds non sensory information for more than a few seconds but less than a minute

rehearsal

the process of keeping information in short-term memory by mentally repeating it

chunking

combining small pieces of information into large clusters or chunks that are more easily held in short-term memory

working memory

active maintenance of information in short-term storage

long-term memory

a type of storage that holds information for hours, days, weeks, or years

anterograde amnesia

the inability to transfer new information from the short-term store into the long-term store

retrograde amnesia

the inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a particular date, usually the date of an injury or surgery

consolidation

the process by which memories become stable in the brain

reconsolidation

memories can become vulnerable to disruption when they are recalled, requiring them to become consolidated again

long-term potentiation (LTP)

a process whereby communication across the synapse between neurons strengthens the connection, making further communication easier

retrieval cue

external information that is associated with stored information and helps bring it to mind

encoding specificity principle

the idea that a retrieval cue can serve as an effective reminder when it helps re-create the specific way in which information was initially encoded

state-dependent retrieval

the tendency for information to be better recalled when the person is in the same state during encoding and retrieval

transfer-appropriate processing

the idea that memory is likely to transfer from one situation to another when the encoding and retrieval contexts of the situations match

retrieval-induced forgetting

a process by which retrieving an item from long-term memory impairs subsequent recall of related items

explicit memory

the act of consciously or intentionally retrieving past experiences

implicit memory

the influence of past experiences on later behavior and performance, even without an effort to remember them or an awareness of the recollection

procedural memory

the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or "knowing how" to do things

priming

an enhanced ability to think of a stimulus, such as a word or object, as a result of a recent exposure to the stimulus

semantic memory

a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world

episodic memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

bulimia nervosa

an eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging

anorexia nervosa

an eating disorder characterized by an intense fear of being fat and severe restriction of food intake

metabolism

the rate at which energy is used by the body

human sexual response cycle

the stages of physiological arousal during sexual activity

minimal parental investment

the least amount of work required to pass on one's genes, which is significantly higher in females than males

variability hypothesis

the idea that men had a greater degree of variability in most traits, compared to women, and were therefore at a selective advantage in evolutionary terms; disproven in cognitive abilities

theory of mind

ability to reason about what other people know or believe

three mountain task

A task invented by Piaget and Inhelder, in which children are asked to look at a model of a landscape marked by hills and mountains and tell how it looks from a perspective different from their own; faced objections for lack of motivation to the participant

mean monkey task

a test in which a monkey takes the sticker which I child tells the monkey that the child prefers, which resulted in children systematically telling the truth regardless of consequences, suggesting that the children do not have theory of mind

false belief test

a type of task used in theory-of-mind studies, in which the child must infer that another person does not posses knowledge that he or she possesses (e.g. crayon box filled with candles); children failed this test

15-month-old false belief test

famous theory of mind task which used a looking-time procedure to demonstrate that 15-month-olds were surprised when they saw another person looked in the right box for where their food had been placed

moral foundation theory

a theory proposing that there are five evolved, universal moral domains (harm, fairness, group loyalty, authority, purity) in which specific emotions guide moral judgments

deontology

Approach to ethics that judges the morality of an action based on the action's adherence to rules. Described as duty or obligation, because rules 'binds you to your duty'

utilitarianism

idea that the goal of society should be to bring about the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people

expected value

the average of each possible outcome of a future event, weighted by its probability of occurring

heuristics

shortcut strategies or guidelines that suggest a solution to a problem but do not guarantee an answer

sample size neglect

inferring too much from a small new sample of information (e.g. 400 v. 40 baby hospital example)

base rate neglect

a common fallacy in which a person ignores the overall frequency of some behavior or characteristic in making a decision (e.g. 6'7" not equivalent to NBA player)

representativeness

a heuristic by which a new situation is judged on the basis of its resemblance to a stereotypical model (e.g. trumpet player example)

availability heuristic

making a decision based on the answer that most easily comes to mind

conjunction fallacy

erroneous heuristic in which people think that two events are more likely to occur together than either individual event

planning fallacy

the tendency to underestimate how long it will take to complete a task

endowment effect

the tendency of people to be unwilling to sell a good they already own even if they are offered a price that is greater than the price they would be willing to pay to buy the good if they didn't already own it

temporal discounting

in decision making, the greater weight given to the present over the future (e.g. $10 now vs. $12 in two weeks)

nudge

an exploitation of biases to make society better (e.g. fly in urinal, organ donor)

status quo bias

tendency to do nothing when faced with making a decision

mental disorder

a persistent disturbance or dysfunction in behavior, thoughts, or emotions that causes significant distress or impairment

medical model

abnormal psychological experiences are conceptualized as illnesses that, like physical illnesses, have biological and environmental causes, defined symptoms, and possible cues

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)

a classification system that describes the features used to diagnose each recognized mental disorder and indicates how the disorder can be distinguished from other, similar problems

comorbidity

the co-occurrence of two or more disorders in a single individual

biopsychosocial perspective

explains mental disorders as the result of interactions among biological, psychological, and social factors

diathesis-stress model

suggests that a person may be predisposed for a psychological disorder that remains unexpressed until triggered by stress

Research Domain Criteria Project (RDoC)

a new initiative that aims to guide the classification and understanding of mental disorders by revealing the basic processes that give rise to them

anxiety disorder

the class of mental disorder in which anxiety is the predominant feature

phobic disorders

disorders characterized by marked, persistent, and excessive fear and avoidance of specific objects, activities, or situations

specific phobia

a disorder that involves an irrational fear of a particular object or situation that markedly interferes with an individual's ability to function

social phobia

a disorder that involves an irrational fear or being publicly humiliated or embarrassed

preparedness theory

the idea that people are instinctively predisposed toward certain fears

panic disorder

a disorder characterized by the sudden occurrence of multiple psychological and physiological symptoms that contribute to a feeling of stark terror

agoraphobia

a specific phobia involving a fear of public places

generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)

a disorder characterized by chronic excessive worry accompanied by three or more of the following symptoms: restlessness, fatigue, concentration problems, irritability, muscle tension, and sleep disturbance

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

a disorder in which repetitive, intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and ritualistic behaviors (compulsions) designed to fend off those thoughts interfere significantly with an individual's functioning

post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

a disorder characterized by chronic physiological arousal, recurrent unwanted thoughts or images of the trauma, and avoidance of things that call the traumatic event to mind

mood disorders

mental disorders that have mood disturbance as their predominant feature

major depressive disorder (or unipolar depression)

a disorder characterized by a severely depressed mood and/or inability to experience pleasure that lasts 2 or more weeks and is accompanied by feelings of worthlessness, lethargy, and sleep and appetite distrubance

dysthmia

the same cognitive and bodily problems as in depression are present, but they are less severe and last longer, persisting for at least 2 years

double depression

a moderately depressed mood that persists for at least 2 years and is punctuated by periods of major depression

seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

recurrent depressive episodes in a seasonal pattern

helplessness theory

the idea that individuals who are prone to depression automatically attribute negative experiences to causes that are internal (i.e. their own fault), stable (i.e. unlikely to change), and global (i.e. widespread)

bipolar disorder

a condition characterized by cycles of abnormal, persistent high mood (mania) and low mood (depression)

expressed emotion

a measure of how much hostility, criticism, and emotional overinvolvement are used when speaking about a family member with a mental disorder

clinical psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

distress, dysfunction, deviance

the three D's which constitute the consensus definition of mental illness

psychotherapy

treatment of mental illness involving psychological techniques; consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth

cognitive behavioral therapy

a popular integrative therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior)

clinical psychologist

a psychologist with a PhD, a license to practice, and qualifications to assess, treat, and study mental illnesses

sleep disorders

serious and consistent sleep disturbances that interfere with daytime functioning and cause subjective distress

eating disorders

extreme, harmful eating behaviors that can cause serious illness or even death

synaptic cleft

a gap into which neurotransmitters are released from the axon terminal; altered by many drugs

reuptake

a process in which neurotransmitters are sponged up from the synaptic cleft by the presynaptic membrane

dopamine precursor

drugs such as L-Dopa which increase the amount of dopamine released by the presynaptic cell; commonly used for Parkinson's

Serotonin Selective Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)

drugs which inhibit presynaptic neurons from reabsorbing serotonin; commonly used for depression

Amphetamines

drugs which make synapses release more dopamine and norepinephrine; commonly used for ADHD

cognitive enhancement

brain-function made "better" by pharmacological, physiological or surgical manipulation

sustained attention

the ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time

Go / No Go

task in which participants hit a button when they see a green light and do nothing when they see anything else, continuing for prolonged periods of time

publication bias

the tendency for journals to publish positive findings but not negative or ambiguous ones; used to dispute claims about whether amphetamines can improve long-term memory

apparent improvement

term attributed to the effect of amphetamines on productivity as perceived by users

caffeine

a stimulant which can serve as a cognitive enhancer in a proper dose