Written Questions from Practical 1 (BSCI201)

What are the four major tissue classifications? Describe the general features of each.

Epithelial tissue

• Covers body surfaces, free (apical) surface and is attached underneath to a basement membrane.

• Avascular (no blood vessels of its own), but innervated

b. Connective tissue

• The most abundant

• Cells are scattered within an abundant extracellular matrix made of ground substance and protein fibers (collagen, elastic, reticular).

c. Muscle tissue

• Specialized for contraction and movement.

• Three types: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle tissue

d. Nervous tissue

• Made of neurons and neuroglia or glial cells

• Neurons generate/transmit electrical signals (nerve impulses).

• Neuroglia support, protect, and nourish neurons.

What are the four main types of connective tissue? What cell types will you find in each?

1. Connective tissue proper

• Fibroblasts: make the fibers and ground substance.

• Adipocytes: store fat.

• Macrophages: engulf debris and pathogens.

2. Cartilage

• Chondroblasts: immature cells that produce the matrix.

• Chondrocytes: mature cells that maintain the matrix and sit in lacunae.

3. Bone (osseous tissue)

• Osteoblasts: build new bone matrix.

• Osteoclasts: break down (resorb) bone.

4. Blood

• Leukocytes (white blood cells): immune defense.

• Thrombocytes: cell fragments that help with clotting.

What is the non-living portion of connective tissue composed of?

Extracellular matrix

• Ground substance

• Protein fibers

What two cell types make up nervous tissue? What are these cells' functions?

Cell type 1: Neurons

• Function: generate and transmit electrical signals (nerve impulses)

Cell type 2: Neuroglia

• Function: support, protect, insulate, and nourish neurons

What distinctive anatomical features define each of the following types of muscle tissue?

Skeletal muscle: long, multinucleated fibers, Striated, Unbranched.

Smooth muscle: short, spindle-shaped cells, single central nucleus. No striations.

Cardiac muscle: branched cells with one or two central nuclei, striated, joined by intercalated discs.

What are the four major classifications of bone? Identify two bones for each class.

Long bones:

• femur and humerus

Short bones:

• scaphoid and talus

Flat bones:

• sternum and scapula

Irregular bones

• vertebrae and coccyx

1. What are the two major types of sweat/sudoriferous glands?

2. Which two glands are actually specialized sweat glands? What do each of these glands secrete?

1. Eccrine (merocrine) and apocrine glands.

2. Ceruminous glands (cerumen/earwax) and Mammary glands (milk)

Where are sebaceous (oil) glands located?

Dermis, connected to hair follicles, EXCEPT FOR PALMS/SOLES

• They secrete sebum (oil) by holocrine secretion

What is this on the nail?

(distal) phalanx

Describe two integumentary system mechanisms that help regulate body temperature.

• Sweating (eccrine sweat glands): When body temperature rises, eccrine glands release watery sweat onto the skin surface.

• Vasodilation (when hot): the blood vessels in the dermis widen, so more warm blood flows near the skin surface and heat is lost to the environment.

22.

a. What cell type produces the pigment of hair and skin? What is this pigment called?

b. What cell type is the most abundant in the epidermis? What protein is produced by these cells?

c. What cell type serves as touch receptors in the epidermis?

d. What cell type of the epidermis mediates immune response?

a. Melanocytes produce the pigment, which is called melanin.

b. Keratinocytes are the most abundant cell type in the epidermis. They produce the protein keratin.

c. Tactile epithelial cells (Merkel cells), are found in the stratum basale.

d. Dendritic cells mediate the immune response in the epidermis.

24. a. How many cervical vertebrae are there? What characteristics differentiate cervical vertebrae?

    b. How many thoracic vertebrae are there? What characteristics differentiate thoracic vertebrae?

    c. How many lumbar vertebrae are there? What characteristics differentiate lumbar vertebrae?

    d. What are the special features of the atlas (C1) and axis (C2)? How are they different from other

    cervical vertebrae?

a. Cervical: 7 vertebrae (C1-C7).

• Smallest vertebral bodies in the column.

• Transverse foramina in the transverse processes (for the vertebral arteries).

• Bifid (split) spinous processes on C2 to C6.

• Large, triangular vertebral foramen.

b. Thoracic: 12 vertebrae (T1-T12).

• Costal facets (on the body and transverse processes) for articulation with the ribs.

• Round, smaller vertebral foramen.

c. Lumbar: 5 vertebrae (L1-L5).

• Largest, thickest bodies

• No transverse foramina and no costal facets.

• Kidney-shaped bodies with a triangular vertebral foramen.

d. Atlas (C1) and axis (C2)

Atlas (C1):

• No body and no spinous process.

• Large superior articular facets that receive the occipital condyles of the skull, allowing the “yes” (nodding) movement.

• Has transverse foramina and large lateral masses.

Axis (C2):

• Has a body, plus a dens (odontoid process) projecting upward from the body.

• The dens acts as a pivot that the atlas rotates around, allowing the “no” (head-turning) movement.

For the bones listed below, identify the features that would allow you to differentiate left vs. right + TIPSS

a. Ribs

• The head and tubercle are at the posterior end, with the head being the end that articulates with the vertebra.

• The costal groove runs along the inferior border on the inner (internal) surface.

• The shaft curves forward from the back, and the angle (bend) is near the back.

• To tell sides, hold the rib with the head pointing back, the groove facing down and in, and the curve bending forward. The side toward which the rib curves around is the side of the body it came from.

b. Clavicle

• The sternal end is medial, rounded or blunt. The acromial end is lateral and flattened.

• The clavicle has an S-shape: the medial two-thirds curves anteriorly (convex forward), and the lateral third curves posteriorly (it is concave forward).

• The conoid tubercle and rough ligament markings are on the inferior (undersurface) of the lateral end. The superior surface is smooth.

• To tell sides, hold it with the flat end out to the side and the smooth surface up. If the medial curve bulges forward, you can work out which side it came from.

c. Scapula

• The glenoid cavity (socket) points laterally.

• The spine is on the posterior surface. The coracoid process projects anteriorly, and the acromion extends laterally from the spine.

• The subscapular fossa is the smooth, concave surface on the anterior side.

• To tell sides, hold it with the spine facing you (posterior view). If the glenoid cavity points to your left, it is a leftscapula. If it points to your right, it is a right scapula.

d. Humerus

• The head faces medially (toward the body) and slightly posteriorly.

• The intertubercular groove is on the anterior surface, between the greater and lesser tubercles.

• The olecranon fossa is on the posterior surface of the distal end. The coronoid fossa is on the anterior surface.

• To tell sides, hold it upright with the head at the top and the intertubercular groove facing forward. The head points toward the side the bone belongs to.

e. Femur

• The head is medial and the greater trochanter is lateral. The head and neck angle toward the midline.

• The linea aspera (a rough ridge) runs down the posterior surface of the shaft.

• The condyles and intercondylar fossa are posterior. The smooth patellar surface is anterior.

• To tell sides, hold it upright with the head at the top and the linea aspera facing back. The head points toward the midline, so it points toward the side it came from.

f. Tibia

• The tibial tuberosity is on the anterior surface, near the top.

• The medial malleolus is on the medial side of the distal end.

• The fibular notch (distal end) and the facet for the fibula (on the lateral condyle) are on the lateral side.

• To tell sides, hold it upright with the distal end at the bottom and the tibial tuberosity facing forward. The medial malleolus points toward the body’s midline, so the side it is on is the side the tibia came from.