AQA A Level Psychology: Research Methods Knowledge Organiser

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering experiments, observations, self-report methods, correlations, sampling methods, experimental designs, control in research, peer reviews, economic implications, ethics, reliability, validity, and levels of data for AQA A Level Psychology.

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable that is manipulated by the researcher in an experiment to establish cause and effect.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable that is measured by the researcher in an experiment.

Extraneous Variables

Variables other than the independent variable that could affect the dependent variable and need controlling.

Lab Experiment

An experiment where a researcher manipulates the IV and measures a DV under controlled conditions to prevent confounding variables, where participants generally know they are taking part.

Field Experiment

An experiment where a researcher manipulates the IV and measures a DV in natural conditions (any location that is not a laboratory), where participants may not know they are in a study.

Natural Experiment

A study where researchers do not manipulate the IV, but instead examine the effect of an existing, naturally occurring IV (such as a flood or earthquake) on the DV.

Quasi Experiment

A study containing a naturally occurring IV that already exists as a difference between people, such as gender, age, or a personality trait.

Covert Observation

An observational study where participants are not aware they are being observed.

Overt Observation

An observational study where participants are aware they are being observed.

Participant Observation

An observational method where the observer also takes part in the activity being observed.

Non-Participant Observation

An observational method where the observer does not take part in the activity, watching from a distance instead.

Controlled Observation

An observation that takes place in a lab-style setting.

Natural Observation

An observation that takes place in an unaltered setting in which the observer does not interfere in any way.

Behavioural Categories

Target behaviours that observers design and operationalise (e.g. kicking to measure aggression) to tally or video record during an observation.

Time Sampling

An observational sampling method where an observer records behaviour at prescribed intervals (e.g. every $10\,\text{seconds}$), not recording behaviour outside of this.

Event Sampling

An observational sampling method where an observer records the number of times that a target behaviour occurs, e.g. using a tally.

Questionnaire

A written survey that measures attitudes or opinions on something, which can be made up of closed and/or open questions.

Open Questions

Questions with no predetermined responses, allowing respondents to offer as much detail as they want and gathering qualitative data.

Closed Questions

Questions with predetermined responses for respondents to choose from, which usually gather quantitative data.

Structured Interview

An interview format where all interviewees are asked the same questions with no room for additional avenues to be explored.

Semi-Structured Interview

An interview format where some set questions are prepared by the interviewer, but areas of interest can be followed up.

Unstructured Interview

An interview format where the interviewer prepares one or two questions, but the interview snowballs naturally.

Correlation

A research method that aims to find a relationship between co-variables, displayed on a scatter graph.

Correlation Coefficient

A numerical value between $-1$ and $+1$ that indicates the direction and strength of a correlation.

Curvilinear Relationship

A non-linear relationship where the correlation changes direction, such as the relationship between temperature and aggression which is positive up to a point but declines at very high temperatures.

Target Population

The group of people that a sample is supposed to represent.

Sample

A group used in research that represents a target population.

Random Sampling

A sampling method where every person in the target population has a chance of being selected for the sample, such as via a computer name generator.

Opportunity Sampling

A sampling method where the sample consists of people from the target population who are available at the time the researcher approaches them.

Systematic Sampling

A sampling method where a predetermined system is used to select participants, such as choosing every fifth person.

Volunteer Sampling

A sampling method where participants self-select to take part in a study by volunteering when asked or by responding to an advert.

Stratified Sampling

A sampling method where subgroups within a population are identified and participants are obtained from each stratum in proportion to the target population.

Independent Groups Design

An experimental design that uses two separate groups of participants, where each person only takes part in one condition.

Repeated Measures Design

An experimental design that uses one group of participants who take part in all conditions of a study.

Matched Pairs Design

An experimental design that uses two groups where each person in one group is matched on relevant traits to someone in the other group before being allocated to conditions.

Order Effects

Confounding effects (such as tiredness, boredom, or rehearsal) arising from participants being repeatedly tested across multiple conditions in a repeated measures design.

Pilot Study

A small-scale prototype of a study carried out before the full research using a smaller representative sample to identify problems and improve validity.

Situational Variables

Extraneous variables connected with the research setting or situation, such as temperature, time of day, lighting, and materials.

Participant Variables

Extraneous variables related to participants and their individual differences, such as age, gender, and sleep.

Control Group

A group in an experiment that is generally not exposed to the IV and provides benchmark data against which the experimental group is compared.

Random Allocation

The process of assigning participants to conditions or control/experimental groups purely by chance to reduce participant variables and investigator effects.

Counterbalancing

A technique used to combat order effects in repeated measures designs by splitting the sample in half, with one half completing conditions in one order and the other half in reverse order.

Randomisation

A technique where all aspects of the research, such as the order of words in a list, are dictated by chance and not by the researcher.

Standardisation

The process in which all situational variables of a procedure used in research are kept identical to ensure consistency and enable replication.

Demand Characteristics

Features of a study that occur when participants try to make sense of the research and change their behaviour to support or disrupt the investigation.

Single-Blind Technique

A control method where participants are unaware of the IV or which condition they are taking part in to minimise demand characteristics.

Investigator Effects

Where a researcher consciously or unconsciously acts in a way that supports their prediction, or where their traits (age, gender, attractiveness) affect participant behaviour.

Double-Blind Technique

A control method where neither the participant nor the researcher knows the identity of the IV or experimental groups.

Peer Review

An independent, anonymous assessment process undertaken by other experts in the same field before a research study is published to assess validity, originality, and significance.

Implications for the Economy

The interpretation of psychological findings in terms of their economic value, costs, or effects on society, such as NHS savings or workforce productivity.

Deception

An ethical issue occurring when information is deliberately withheld from participants or they are knowingly misled (e.g. using confederates or lying about aims).

Informed Consent

An ethical guideline requiring that participants are told the real aims and expected outcomes of a study before agreeing to participate.

Presumptive Consent

An alternative method of gaining consent where a representative group of individuals is asked if they would take part, and it is presumed actual participants would agree as well.

Prior General Consent

An alternative method of consent where participants agree to take part in studies knowing they may be deceived, effectively consenting to being deceived beforehand.

Protection from Harm

An ethical requirement ensuring participants do not experience psychological or physiological harm, pain, or embarrassment greater than what is typical of daily life.

Right to Withdraw

An ethical guideline stating that participants must be reminded they can withdraw themselves or their data from research at any point.

Debrief

A process carried out at the end of a study to reveal the true aims, check participant welfare, offer support, and answer any questions.

Reliability

A measure of consistency in research findings or measuring tools.

Inter-Observer Reliability

The extent to which two or more observers record behaviour consistently; established when scores from separate observers correlate at $+0.8$ or higher.

Test-Retest Reliability

A method of measuring consistency where the same participants repeat a measure on different occasions, with a correlation of $+0.8$ or above indicating reliability.

Internal Validity

The extent to which a researcher is measuring what they intended to measure without the influence of confounding variables.

External Validity

The extent to which research results can be generalised outside of the sample (population validity) or the setting (ecological validity).

Face Validity

A subjective check to assess whether a test or tool appears, on the surface, to measure what it claims to measure.

Concurrent Validity

A method of assessing validity by comparing the performance of a new test to an existing test that is already recognised and trusted in the same field.

Lie Scales

Items included in questionnaires that ask the same question in opposite ways to check for participant response consistency.

Primary Data

Data collected first-hand for a specific reason and reported by the original researcher, designed specifically to suit the aims of the investigation.

Secondary Data

Data collected by other researchers for a purpose other than the current investigation, existing prior to the study (e.g. government reports).

Qualitative Data

Non-numerical data expressed in words (e.g. an interview transcript) that provides rich insight into human behaviour.

Quantitative Data

Numerical data that can be statistically analysed, such as percentages or hours of sleep.

Nominal Data

Categorical, discrete data where each participant or observation will only appear in one category (e.g. male or female, left or right-handed).

Ordinal Data

Data that is ordered or ranked in some way where the intervals between the data points are not equal (e.g. attitudes on a scale of 1-10 or leaderboard rankings).

Interval Data

Data where the intervals between each value are equal in measurement, such as scientific units of length (centimetres), time (minutes/hours), or weight (lbs/kilos).