AP Gov Notes

(1.1) Enlightenment Thinkers: John Locke (1632-1704)

Core Idea:

• Natural rights and the social contract

Impact:

• Locke’s “Two Treatises of Government” argued that all people possess fundamental rights to “life, liberty, and estate.” Jefferson directly adapted this into “Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness.” Locke also argued that citizens have a right to alter or abolish a government that fails to protects those rights.

(1.1) Enlightenment Thinkers: Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)

Core Idea:

• Separation of powers and anti-tyranny

Impact:

• In “The Spirit of the Laws,” Montesquieu warned against concentrating executive and legislative power in a singer ruler. The Declaration’s lengthy list of grievances against King George III framed him as a tyrant who violated this principle.

(1.1) Enlightenment Thinkers: Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

Core Idea:

• Popular sovereignty and the general will.

Impact:

• In “The Social Contract,” Rousseau asserted that legitimate political authority rests solely on the consent of the governed- a phrasing featured prominently in the opening preamble of the Declaration.

(1.1) Enlightenment Thinkers: Thomas Paine (1737-1809)

Core Idea:

• Anti-monarchical republicanism and common sense rule

Impact:

• While writing in America, Paine was heavily influenced by Enlightenment ideas. His 1776 pamphlet “Common Sense” popularized these abstract ideas for the general public, directly radicalizing American colonial opinion in favor of complete independence.

(1.1) Enlightenment Thinkers: Algernon Sidney (1623-1683)

Core Idea:

• Resistance to absolute monarchy

Impact:

• Though preceding the core Enlightenment, Sidney’s “Discourses Concerning Government” was widely read by the Founders. He argued that kingly power is limited by the law and that free people have a right to resist tyranny.

(1.1) Declaration of Independence (DofI): When was it adopted and what did it do?

Was adopted by the Second Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence officially severed the thirteen American colonies’ political ties to Great Britain

(1.1) DofI: Author and Draft

Author:

• Thomas Jefferson wrote the primary draft between June 11 and June 28 1776

The Committee:

• He worked alongside the “Committee of Five” - John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston

Major Editis:

• Congress made substantial revisions before approval, including striking out a passage written by Jefferson that condemned the transatlantic slave trade to secure votes from southern colonies.

(1.1) DofI: Timeline and Dates

July 2, 1776:

• Congress officially voted in favor of Richard Henry Lee’s resolution to declare independence from Britain. John Adams thought July 2nd would be celebrated as Independence Day

July 4, 1776:

• Congress formally approved the specific text of the Declaration

August 2, 1776:

• Most Delegates actually signed the official document

(1.1) DofI: Document Structure

Preamble and Introduction:

• States the purpose- to explain to the world why the colonies are separating from Great Britain

Declaration of Rights:

• Established the philosophical basis of government based on Enlightenment principles

Indictment (List of Grievances):

• Highlights 27 specific abuses by King George III

Statement of Separation:

• Formally declares the 13 colonies as free and independent states

(1.1) DofI: Signers and Signatures

56 Total Signers:

• Representing all 13 states

John Hancock:

• Signed first and biggest as President of the Continental Congress, idiom “John Hancock” for a signature

Act of Treason:

• By signing, the delegates were committing high treason against the British Crown, punishable by death

(1.1) DofI concepts and definitions: Natural Law

• The doctrine that human rights are inherent by virtue of human nature, universally discoverable by reason, and exist prior to and independent of any government or legal system

Ex in the DofI:

• “Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them…”

• “… that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness…”

(1.1) DofI concepts and definitions: Popular Sovereignty

• The principle that ultimate political authority and the power to govern reside with the people, not a monarch or elite class

Ex in the DofI:

• “… a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.”

• “That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed— That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it…”

(1.1) DofI concepts and definitions: Social Contract

• An implicit agreement among individuals to create a society and submit to government authority in exchange for the protection of their natural rights. If the government fails to protect those rights, the contract is broken

Ex in the DofI:

• “… one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another…”

• “But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism…”

• “The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these states.”

(1.1) DofI concepts and definitions: Republic

• A system of government in which ultimate power resides in the people, who elect representatives to exercise that power on their behalf under a constitutional system

(1.1) DofI concepts and definitions: Separation of Powers

• The division of government responsibilities into distinct branches (legislative, executive, and judicial) to limit any single branch from exercising core functions of another and preventing tyranny

Ex in the DofI:

• “… new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form…”

• “… to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security— Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government…”

(1.2) Three Models of Democracy: Participatory Democracy

Core Definition:

• A model emphasizing broad, direct citizen participation in politics and civil society

Key Assumption:

• Government operates best when the majority of ordinary citizens are actively involved in policymaking

Primary Mechanisms:

• Voting in local, state, and national elections

• Grassroots organizing, protests, and community political activism

• State-level ballot measures:

• Initiatives (citizens propose laws directly) and Referendums (voters approve or reject legislative decisions)

Constitutional Foundations and Texts:

• Brutus No.1: Expressed Anti-Federalist fears of a distant elite and favored small, local republics where citizens could directly shape their government

• House of Representatives: Originally the only directly elected federal branch, designed with short 2-year terms to stay responsive to ordinary voters

Modern Examples:

• Town hall meetings, voter turnout drives, and local school board meetings

(1.2) Three Models of Democracy: Pluralist Democracy

Core Definition:

• A model where non-governmental, organized groups compete to influence political decision-making so that no single group dominates

Key Assumption:

• Individuals exercise power most effectively by joining interest groups with shared goals rather than acting alone

Primary Mechanisms:

• Lobbying: Interest groups meet with lawmakers to push specific policy agendas

• Multiple Access Points: Federalism and the separation of powers giver interest groups numerous places to influence policy (courts, congress, state legislatures, executive agencies).

• Litigation: Campaign donations, and public awareness campaigns

Constitutional Foundations and Texts:

• Federalist No.10: James Madison argued that a large republic naturally creates a multitude of competing “factions” (interest groups), preventing any single faction from gaining tyrannical control

Modern Examples:

• Labor unions, the NRA, the ACLU, etc.

(1.2) Three Models of Democracy: Elite Democracy

Core Definition:

• A model where political power is concentrated among a small, wealthy, highly educated, or well-connected minority

Key Assumption:

• Ordinary citizens lack the time, expertise, or information to govern effectively, so decision-making should be filtered through capable leaders

Primary Mechanisms:

• Insulating key decision-makers from direct public pressure

• Campaign finance systems that elevate major financial donors and Super PACs

• Independent regulatory agencies and judicial appointments

Constitutional Foundations and Texts:

• Electoral College: Filters the presidential vote through electors rather than relying on a direct popular vote

• Original Senate Selection: Senators were originally chosen by states legislatures rather than direct popular vote

• Supreme Court: Lifetime tenure for federal judges inslates them from political and public pressure

Modern Examples:

• Cabinet appointments, economic policy driven by Wall Street and major corporations, and major political influence from wealthy individuals

(1.4) Articles of Confederation: Timeline

• 1776: Declaration of Independence

• 1777: Drafting of the AoC starts

• 1781: Formal Adoption of AoC by all 13 states

• 1781-1787: First Government

• 1786: Shays’ Rebellion

• 1787: Constitutional Convention

(1.4) Articles of Confederation: Systems of Government

• Unitary Structure: A central government holds supreme authority over local or regional governments

• Confederal System: A loose alliance of independent states that retain individual sovereignty, delegating limited powers to a weak central authority

• Why Congress Chose a Confederation: Having just fought a war against a central power. Americans feared tyranny and preferred keeping power close to home at the state level

(1.4) Articles of Confederation: AoC Overview

• Primary Author: John Dickinson

• Active Dates: 1781-1789

• Power Distributions: Sovereign state government held the majority of political power

(1.4) Articles of Confederation: Capabilities of the Confederation Congress

Powers Granted:

• Declare war and make peace

• Enter into foreign treaties and alliances

• Manage relations with Native American tribes

• Coin and borrow money

• Establish a post office

Powers Denied:

• Direct taxation of citizens

• Regulation of interstate or foreign trade

• Draft soldiers or maintain a standing national army

• Enforcement of federal laws

(1.4) Articles of Confederation: Accomplishments and Weaknesses

Two Major Accomplishments:

• Land Ordinance of 1785 + Northwest Ordinance of 1787: Established a systematic process for surveying western lands, admitting new states, and funding public education

• Winning the Rev. War: Maintained unity long enough to negotiate the Treaty of Paris (1783) ending the war with GB

Five Major Weaknesses:

• No Power to Tax: Forced Congress to request funds from reluctant states, leaving the government in deep debt

• No executive Branch: Lacked a president or executive officer to enforce national laws

• No Judicial Branch: Lacked a national court system to settle legal disputes between states

• Rigid Voting Requirements: Required 9 of 13 states to pass laws and a unanimous 13 of 13 to amend the Articles

• No Trade Regulation: Caused economic chaos as individual states placed tariffs each other’s goods

(1.4) Articles of Confederation: The Catalyst for Change: Shays’ Rebellion

• Most Significant Issue: Severe national debt and economic instability caused by congress’s inability to tax or regulate trade

• Shays’ Rebellion: An armed uprising of Daniel Shays protesting because he was in foreclosure on his farm and a war vet, the military came and yk shot them all

• Impact: Because the federal government could not raise an army to help Massachusetts stop the revolt, national government too weak— directly called for the Constitutional Convention in 1787

(1.4) Unitary Government

• Power flows from the central government to the state government

(1.4) Confederal Government

• Power flows from the state governments to the central government

(1.4) Federal Government

• Power flows between the central government and the state government, back and forth

(1.4) Confederal Government Definition

• In a confederation, power originates from the bottom up. The individual member states retain their full sovereignty, while the central authority remains deliberately weak, handling only specific shared tasks- typically defensem foreign relations or trade policy. Decisions made by the central government often require unanimous approval, and member states generally retain the explicit right to secede.

(1.4) Key Characteristics of a Confederal Government

Local Sovereignty:

• member states remain fully independent, self-governing entities

Weak Central Authority:

• The central entity lacks the power to levy taxes directly on citizens or enforce laws without the consent of the member states

Voluntary Membership:

• States can choose to leave the Confederate

Indirect Governance:

• Citizens are governed primarily by their local state laws, not central directives

(1.5, The Constitution) Parts of The Preamble and the corresponding AoC weakness

“in Order to form a more perfect Union”

• Under the Articles, the nation was a "firm league of friendship" between 13 sovereign states with a weak central government that could not enforce unity or compliance.

"...establish Justice"

• They couldn't enforce federal laws because of no executive branch

"...insure domestic Tranquility"

• They did not have a judicial branch so they couldn't settle debates between states.

"...provide for the common defence"

• Shays’ Rebellion and the inability to raise a national army and fund it.

 "...promote the general Welfare"

•  Under the Articles there was no benefit for the regular person, there was no power to tax or regulate trade so the people in the US could not profit from the things they would under a successful government

“secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity"

• The Articles could not provide a future for the future generations because of the unstableness of the government

(1.5, The Constitution) Article 1 (The Legislative Branch): Section 1

• Bicameral Congress

• The main power is to have a system of checks and balances and to ensure states have equal representation and have a more centralized government. Congress will consist of a House of Representatives and a Senate.

(1.5, The Constitution) Article 1: Section 2

• House of Representatives

• The House of Representatives will consist of representatives from each state

• This system is chosen based on population of free people and ⅗ enslaved people

• They will be chosen every 2 years and the numbers will be reevaluated every 10

• Requirements to run for Rep: 25 years old, 7 years citizen, and live in the state

(1.5, The Constitution) Article 1: Section 3

• Senate

• There will be 2 senators from each state

• 6 year term

• Each senator has one vote

• They will be voted on in a rotating cycle so that only ⅓ of the Senate is up for election each cycle

• The Vice President is the President of the Senate but no vote unless they are divided equally

• The Senate has the sole power to try all impeachment cases

• Requirements: 30 years old, 9 years citizen, and live in the state.

(1.5, The Constitution) Article 1: Section 4

• Elections and Meetings

• Elections for Senators or Representatives are chosen by the state legislatures

• Congress can make a law to alter regulations on these

• Congress has to meet at least once a year and the meeting will be on the first Monday in December. (this was changed)

(1.5, The Constitution) Article 1: Section 5

• Legislative Proceedings and Rules

• Each House will Judge Elections, Members and their qualifications, and have a majority to constitute a Quorum to do stuff

• Each House determines the rules and proceedings and can punish members for behaviour and with ⅔ can expel a member

• Each house has to have a journal of the meetings, recording the assents and dissents

• No house during a session of congress can last more than 3 days or be in another place without the agreement of both houses.

(1.5, The Constitution) Article 1: Section 6

• Compensation, Privileges, & Restrictions

• The Senators and Representatives have to be paid by law and paid out of the Treasury

• They will in most cases other than felony, etc., be privileged from arrest during their attendance of session, and for any speech or debate they can’t be tried in any other place

• When they are in office they can’t be appointed to any civil office

• No person holding any office under the US can be a member of congress or the senate while in office.

(1.5, The Constitution) Article 1: Section 7

• How Bills Become Laws

• All bills for raising money have to originate in the House of Representatives, but the Senate can put amendments in it.

• Every bill has to be approved by the House and Senate and before becoming a law has to be seen by the President and approved, if its not they can reconsider it in the house which proposed it.

• After this reconsidering if ⅔ of that House agrees to pass it, it will be resent to the other House and if ⅔ of that house approves it, it becomes law.

• If a bill isn't returned by the President in 10 days, the Same shall be law (being as if he had signed it) unless Congress stops it.

• Every order, resolution, or vote to which both Congress and the Senate vote will be agreed or disagreed by the President and can be reconsidered with ⅔ vote by both Houses.

(1.5, The Constitution) Article 1: Section 8

• Powers Granted to Congress

• Granted/enumerate powers:

• Congress can lay and collect taxes, provide for the welfare of the US, all duties and imports should be uniform throughout the US.

• borrow money on credit from the US

• regulate commerce with foreign nations

• establish a uniform Rule of Naturalization and uniform laws on Bankruptcies

• coin money

• provide punishment for counterfeit money

• establish post offices and post roads

• promote science and art by letting them have the rights to their creation

• constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme court

• define and punish felonies on the high seas and offences against the Law of Nations

• declare war

• raise and support armies

• provide and maintain a Navy

• make rules for the navy

• can call the Militia, organize the Militia with state involvement

• exercise exclusive legislation over all cases in a 10 mile radius

• to make all laws that are necessary even if they are not stated in the Constitution

(1.5, The Constitution) Article 1: Section 8, Clause 18

• Elastic Clause

• This clause states the rights and jurisdiction of Congress, it's referred to as the Elastic Clause because at the end it states that Congress has the ability to make laws that are deemed necessary even if not stated in the Constitution, so it's basically saying that their power is bendable. 

(1.5, The Constitution) Article 1: Section 9

• Powers Denied to Congress:

• The Migration of people is prohibited by Congress past the year 1808(can’t import slaves)

• The Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended unless there is a riot or the public's safety requires it

• No bill of Attainder or Ex post facto law will be passed (punishment without trial or changing the punishment after the fact)

• no direct tax unless its proportional to the census

• no Tax on articles exported from any state

• no preference by and regulation of commerce to the ports of one state to the others, no money drawn from the Treasury, no Title of Nobility granted to anyone in the US.

(1.5, The Constitution) Article 1: Section 10

• Powers Denied to States:

• treaties

• make money

• ex post facto law

• emit bills of credit

• grant titles of nobility

• lay any duties on exports or imports unless congress says so and the money has to go to the Treasury

• w/o congress they cant keep troops, ships of war in time of peace, enter into an agreement with another state or foreign place, or engage in war unless actually invaded and its needed for the safety of the people

(1.5, The Constitution) Article 2 (The Executive Branch): Section 1

• The President & Electoral College

• The President has executive power, four year term, and has a VP for four year term.

• Each state will appoint a number of electors equal to the number of Senators and Representatives to which the state has in Congress but no member of Congress can be an elector.

• Electors will meet in their state and have two votes, one for a person who isn't in their state.

• They will note their votes down and send it to the President of the Senate, who will count the votes in front of the Senate and the House of Representatives.

• Whoever has the most votes wins, if there is a tie they choose via ballot.

• The votes will be taken by states, the Representatives from each state has one vote, a quorum will have a majority of states.

• After the President, the next person with the next votes will be the VP.

• To be President you have to be a citizen, 35, and a resident for 14 years.

• If the President is dead or disabled the VP is president until Congress can figure it out.

• The President will sometimes get paid but it can't increase or decrease while being the president, cannot have any other Emolument from the US or any other country.

(1.5, The Constitution) Article 2: Section 2

• Presidential Powers & Commander-in-Chief Role

• The President is the Commander in Chief to the Army, Navy, and militia of states.

• They will have the power to grant Pardons for Offences against the US unless in cases of Impeachment.

• Has the power to make treaties but has to have ⅔ votes of the Senate.

• With the advice of the Senate will appoint ambassadors, Judges of the Supreme Court, and all other offices of the US that are not stated in the Constitution but established by law.

• Congress can make a law to stop people from being in Office that they think aren't fit. 

(1.5, The Constitution) Article 2: Section 3

• Duties of the President & State of the Union

• The President from time to time will give Congress information on the State of the Union and consult them on whatever measure he thinks to. They can gather both Houses, and in case of disagreement he may adjourn them. They will take care that all laws are being faithfully executed, and will commission all Officers of the US.

(1.5, The Constitution) Article 2: Section 4

• Impeachment Standards

• The President, VP, all people in Civil Offices can be impeached for Treason, Bribery, or other high crimes and Misdemeanors.

(1.5, The Constitution) Article 3 (The Judicial Branch): Section 1

• Federal Courts & Judicial Tenure

• Judicial Power is given to one Supreme Court and in lower courts

• the Judges will hold office in good behaviour and be paid, but payment will stay the same while they are in office.

(1.5, The Constitution) Article 3: Section 2

• Jurisdiction & Trial by Jury

• Judicial Power will extend to all cases in Law and Equity, ones arising in the constitution, laws of the US, treaties, maritime, state cases, state vs. people cases, and other cases with states and people and such.

• In all cases with Ambassadors or Ministers and ones with States, the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction.

• All other cases, they can look at if they want to.

• All trials but Impeachment is by Jury, has to be in the state that has occurred, or where congress says.

(1.5, The Constitution) Article 3: Section 3

• Definition & Punishment of Treason

• Treason against the US is only in levying War against them, or giving them aid and support to adhere to their enemies.

• No person could be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of 2 witnesses on the same overt act or in open court.

• Congress can declare Punishment of Treason but if you have your civil liberties taken away for treason, the punishment/crime won't pass to your children and they can inherit their property after their death.

(1.5, The Constitution) Article 4 (Relations Among the States): Section 1

• Full Faith and Credit

• Full faith and credit will be given to the laws and such that states pass in all other states, and Congress may pass Laws explaining them or giving more credit to them.

(1.5, The Constitution) Article 4: Section 2

• Privileges and Immunities & Extradition

• Citizens of each state will have the privileges of all the other states.

• A person charged with treason or other crimes that flees into another state will be brought back to the original state and face punishment there.

• No person held to service or labor in one state can escape and claim they are discharged from labor (overturned later).

(1.5, The Constitution) Article 4: Section 3

• Admission of New States & Territories

• New States can be added but none in the jurisdiction of other states, and states can’t be joined or taken from one another without the consent of each state's legislatures and Congress.

• Congress can make decisions on US territories, nothing in the Constitution allows for prejudice any territories or states.

(1.5, The Constitution) Article 4: Section 4

• Guarantee of Republican Government

• The US guarantees every state a Republican form of government and will protect them from invasion and domestic violence.

(1.5, The Constitution) Article 5 (The Amendment Process)

Proposal: 

1. ⅔ of both Houses agree can propose amendments

2. On the application of the legislatures of ⅔ of the states can call for a convention to propose amendments

Ratification: 

1. By the Legislatures of ¾ of the states 

2. Congress can choose if the amendment is sent to state legislatures for ratification.

(1.5, The Constitution) Article 6 (National Supremacy & Debts): Clause 6

• The Supremacy Clause

• Says that all treaties made and laws will be the law of the land and that state judges are bound by it, the senators, representatives, etc are all bound by oath or affirmation to the constitution (and no religious text shall ever be required as a qualification).

(1.5, The Constitution) Article 7 ( Ratification)

• 9 out of 13 state conventions were required to ratify the US Constitution for it to take effect.