AP. Gov study guide

Natural rights

Rights people are born with, such as life, liberty, and property.

Popular sovereignty

The idea that government gets its power from the people.

Social contract

The idea that people give government some power in exchange for protection of their rights.

Limited government

The principle that government power is restricted by laws and the Constitution.

Republicanism

The idea that citizens govern indirectly by electing representatives.

Republic

A system where citizens elect representatives to make decisions for them.

Direct democracy

A system where citizens vote directly on laws and policies.

Faction

A group united by a shared interest or passion that may conflict with the rights or interests of others.

John Locke

Believed people have natural rights and government exists to protect those rights.

Thomas Hobbes

Believed people need a strong government to maintain order and prevent chaos.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Believed government should reflect the general will of the people.

Baron de Montesquieu

Believed government power should be divided among separate branches to prevent tyranny.

Participatory democracy

A model where citizens are directly involved in political decision-making.

Pluralist democracy

A model where different interest groups compete to influence government policy.

Elite democracy

A model where a relatively small group of wealthy or influential people has disproportionate political influence.

Institution

An established organization or structure of government, such as Congress, the presidency, or the courts.

Government capacity

What a government is able to do.

Government limits

What a government is legally or practically prevented from doing.

Government legitimacy

Whether people accept a government's authority as rightful.

Articles of Confederation

The first U.S. governing document; created a weak national government and strong states.

Confederal system

A system where states retain most political power and the central government is weak.

State sovereignty

The authority and independence retained by individual states.

Shays's Rebellion

A 1786–1787 Massachusetts farmer rebellion that demonstrated the weakness of the national government under the Articles.

Commerce crisis of the 1780s

A period when states placed tariffs and restrictions on interstate trade, making commerce difficult.

Great Compromise

Created a bicameral Congress with population-based representation in the House and equal representation in the Senate.

Three-Fifths Compromise

Counted three-fifths of the enslaved population for purposes of representation and taxation.

1808 slave trade clause

Prevented Congress from banning the importation of enslaved people until 1808.

Electoral College

The system in which states choose electors who formally select the president.

Separation of powers

The division of government power among legislative, executive, and judicial branches.

Checks and balances

A system in which each branch has powers that can limit the other branches.

Bicameralism

The division of Congress into two chambers: the House and Senate.

Article I

Creates the legislative branch and gives Congress its powers.

Article II

Creates the executive branch and gives the president executive powers.

Article III

Creates the judicial branch and establishes the federal courts.

Necessary and Proper Clause

Allows Congress to make laws necessary and proper for carrying out its enumerated powers.

Supremacy Clause

Establishes that the Constitution and federal laws take priority over conflicting state laws.

Article V

Establishes the process for amending the Constitution.

Federalism

A system in which power is divided between the national government and state governments.

Federalists

Supporters of the Constitution who wanted a stronger national government.

Anti-Federalists

Critics of the Constitution who feared the national government would become too powerful.

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments protecting individual rights and liberties.

Massachusetts Compromise

The agreement to ratify the Constitution while supporting later amendments protecting individual rights.

Unitary system

A system where most political power is concentrated in the national government.

Federal system

A system where power is divided between national and state governments.

Jurisdiction

The legal authority of a government or court over a particular issue or area.

Enumerated powers

Powers specifically listed in the Constitution and given to the federal government.

Implied powers

Powers not directly stated but reasonably inferred from enumerated powers.

Reserved powers

Powers kept by the states under the Tenth Amendment.

Concurrent powers

Powers shared by both national and state governments.

Tenth Amendment

Powers not given to the federal government or denied to the states are reserved to the states or the people.

Full Faith and Credit Clause

Requires states to generally recognize the public acts, records, and court decisions of other states.

Privileges and Immunities Clause

Generally prevents states from discriminating against citizens of other states regarding fundamental rights.

Dual federalism

A system where national and state governments have separate areas of authority; often called layer-cake federalism.

Cooperative federalism

A system where national and state governments share responsibilities; often called marble-cake federalism.

New Deal

Franklin D. Roosevelt's programs during the Great Depression that greatly expanded the federal government's role.

Devolution

The process of transferring power and responsibilities from the federal government back to the states.

Fiscal federalism

The use of federal money to influence state and local government policies.

Grants-in-aid

Federal money given to state or local governments for specific purposes.

Categorical grant

Federal money given for a specific purpose with significant federal requirements.

Block grant

Federal money given for a broad purpose that gives states more flexibility.

Unfunded mandate

A federal requirement imposed on states without providing enough money to pay for it.

Revenue sharing

A system in which federal money was given to state and local governments with relatively few restrictions.

Conditional spending

The federal government's use of funding conditions to encourage states to follow federal policies.

Declaration of Independence

A founding document primarily written by Thomas Jefferson that argues government exists to protect natural rights and people can replace governments that violate those rights.

Federalist No. 10

James Madison's essay arguing that a large republic can control factions because many competing factions make it difficult for one faction to dominate.

Federalist No. 51

James Madison's essay explaining checks and balances and why government power should be divided.

Federalist No. 39

James Madison's essay describing the Constitution as creating a government that is partly national and partly federal.

Brutus No. 1

An Anti-Federalist essay warning that a large national government could become too powerful and weaken the states.

Federalist 10 vs. Brutus 1

Madison argued that a large republic protects liberty by controlling factions; Brutus argued that a large republic would threaten self-government and allow the national government to become too powerful.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

The Supreme Court case that upheld Congress's power to create a national bank and ruled Maryland could not tax it.

McCulloch facts

Congress created the Second Bank of the United States, and Maryland tried to tax it; bank employee James McCulloch refused to pay.

McCulloch question

Whether Congress could create a national bank and whether Maryland could tax it.

McCulloch holding

Congress could create the bank, and Maryland could not tax it.

McCulloch reasoning

The Necessary and Proper Clause allows implied powers, and federal law is supreme over conflicting state action.

McCulloch clause

The Necessary and Proper Clause.

McCulloch meaning of "necessary"

"Necessary" means useful or appropriate for carrying out constitutional powers, not absolutely essential.

United States v. Lopez (1995)

The Supreme Court case that limited Congress's Commerce Clause power by striking down the federal Gun-Free School Zones Act.

Lopez facts

Alfonso Lopez brought a gun to school and was charged under the federal Gun-Free School Zones Act.

Lopez question

Whether Congress could use the Commerce Clause to prohibit gun possession in a school zone.

Lopez holding

No; Congress had exceeded its Commerce Clause authority.

Lopez reasoning

Gun possession near a school was not economic activity and did not have a sufficient connection to interstate commerce.

Lopez clause

The Commerce Clause.

Gonzales v. Raich (2005)

The Supreme Court upheld federal regulation of locally grown medical marijuana because it was part of a broader interstate economic market.

Lopez vs. Raich

Raich involved economic activity connected to an interstate market; Lopez involved noneconomic gun possession near a school.

Printz v. United States (1997)

The Supreme Court ruled that Congress cannot commandeer state officials to carry out federal programs.

Printz principle

The federal government cannot force state officials to administer or enforce federal programs.

Federalism and funding

The federal government can influence states through grants and funding conditions even when it cannot directly order states to legislate.

Great Compromise vs. Three-Fifths Compromise

The Great Compromise settled representation between large and small states; the Three-Fifths Compromise determined how enslaved people would be counted for representation and taxation.

McCulloch vs. Lopez

McCulloch broadly interpreted federal power under the Necessary and Proper Clause; Lopez placed limits on federal power under the Commerce Clause.

Article V proposal threshold

An amendment can be proposed by two-thirds of both houses of Congress or by a convention called by two-thirds of state legislatures.

Article V ratification threshold

An amendment must be ratified by three-fourths of the states through state legislatures or conventions.

Why did the Articles fail?

The national government lacked enough power to tax, regulate interstate commerce, and effectively enforce laws.

Why was the Constitution created?

To create a stronger national government while limiting its power through federalism, separation of powers, and checks and balances.

Why did Federalists initially oppose a Bill of Rights?

They believed it was unnecessary because the federal government only had the powers specifically granted to it.

Why do states generally prefer block grants?

Block grants give states more flexibility in deciding how to use federal money.

How does the federal government influence states?

It uses federal funding and grants, often attaching conditions that encourage states to follow federal policies.