bio exam 2

types of locomotion

swimming, walking, running, hopping, crawling, flying

locomotion with high gravitational force and low frictional force

walking, running, hopping

swimming

water supports movement, minimal gravity effect, water adds heavy frictional force

crawling and burrowing

already on ground, heavy frictional force, anatomy helps them overcome the friction of the ground

brachiation

locomotion in monkeys

sliding

locomotion in penguins

all animal locomotion results from…

a collaboration between the muscles and skeletal system to overcome friction and gravity

hydrostatic skeleton

a fluid-filled cavity with sufficient rigidity that muscles surrounding it can generate movement ex: jellyfish, worms

exoskeleton

a rigid outer covering made of chitin that supports and protects an animals body ex: arthopods, lobsters

endoskeleton

an internal support structure composed of hard, mineralized tissue ex:b starfish, frog

general functions of human skeleton

rigid, protection, storage, production, provides, levers

long bones store …

yellow fat, which will be released to prevent starvation

skull

cranium

jawbone

mandible

collarbone

clavicle

shoulder blade

scapula

breast bone

sternum

ribs

costals

funny bone

humerus

spine

verebral column

tailbone

coccyx

wrist

carpals

hips

pelvis

thigh bone

femur (longest and strongest bone)

kneecap

patella

shin bone

tibia

ankle

tarsals

axial skeleton bones

skull, jawbone, ribs, spine, tailbone

appendicular skeleton

clavicle, scapula, humerus, carpals, radius, ulna, pelvic gurdle, femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsals

components of bone

spongy bond (contain RBC), compact bone, central cavity, yellow bone marrow, blood vessels, cartilidge

periosteum

is a membrane composed of dense, irregular, fibrous connective tissue that lines the outer surface of all bones except at the joints of long bones.  It protects bones from harm and serves as a site for muscle attachment. The periosteum is the primary source of precursor cells which develop into chondroblasts( cartilage cells) and osteoblasts ( bone cells) that are essential to the healing of broken bones.

red bone marrow

all bone marrow is red at birth, but red marrow gradually converts to yellow marrow as we become adults.  After adulthood, only flat bones and ends of long bones (i.e. “spongy bone tissue”) contains red marrow.

yellow bone marrow

is yellow because it is enriched in & stores fat that can be used as a last resort as a source of food/energy during extreme starvation.  More importantly, it can convert back to red bone marrow in 1-2 days in cases of severe blood loss.  This occurs to help quickly replenish the supply of RBC’s that is urgently needed

cartilidge

at the ends of bones – cushions joints; reduces friction of movements.

bone cell function

repair and reshape bones throughout life

osteogenic cells

generate- stem cells that give rise to all other bone cells.

osteoblasts

build

osteocytes

mature bone cells trapped or located in lacunae of bone that maintain bone tissue; thought to be the “mechanosensor cells” that control the activities of osteoblasts & osteoclasts.

osteoclasts

bone-absorbing cells; breakdown bone & return calcium to blood.

broken bones

are realigned and immobilized; bone cells build new bone, healing the break.

fibrous joints

tight immovable joints, where separate bones are held together by connective fibers (e.g. bones of skull and tooth & socket joints).

cartilaginous cells

slightly movable joints between bones that are joined together by strips or disks of cartilage (e.g. in ribs, vertebrae & hip bones).

synovial joints

freely movable joints that are enclosed in a fibrous capsule; bones are separated by a fluid-filled cavity and stabilized (held together) by ligaments.

ball and socket joints

enable rotation in the arms and legs. ex: shoulder, hip

hinge joints

in the elbows and knees permit movement in a single plane. ex: knee, elbow

pivot joints

enable the rotation of the forearm at the elbow.

osteoporosis

the loss of mineral mass from the porous parts of bones, resulting in lighter, weaker, more brittle bones that easily break

rheumatioid arthritis

an autoimmune disease where the joint lining (synovium) is attacked, resulting in inflammation, swelling, pain & degeneration of the joint, including deposition of bone into the joint.

osteo arthritis

also known as “old-age arthritis” where cartilage in joints degrades, resulting in painful bone-to-bone contact & friction, including deposition of bone into the joint as above.

tendonitis and bursitis

painful inflammation of the tendons & bursa of joints.

tennis elbow

bursitis of the elbow joint.

three types of muscle

cardiac, skeletal, smooth

cardiac muscle

involuntary muscle of the heart.

smooth muscle

involuntary muscles of the internal organ systems (except the heart).

skeletal muscle

voluntary muscles attached to the skeletal system for movement & locomotion

2nd class

calf muscle

3rd class

biceps

1st class

tricep

sarcomere

individual muscle cell

muscle fiber contraction

bicep-bundle of muscle fibers-muscle fiber-nuclei-myofibril-actin filaments

motor neurons

Carry nerve impulses (action potentials) from the CNS to muscles.

Axons of each ______ branches out to synapse with many muscle fibers (cells).

motor unit

Synaptic terminals release _______ into the synaptic cleft.

acetyl choline

motor unit

a single axon that branches to (or synapses with) approximately 2000 individual muscle fibers (cells).

Depolarization of T tubules triggers the release of

Ca2+ ions

T Tubulues

The “T”  of T tubules stands for “transverse”.  T tubules are transverse infoldings of the plasma membrane.

Troponin causes the regulatory protein _________ to move away from the myosin-binding sites on actin.

Myosin heads cause actin filaments to “slide” relative to myosin filaments.

tropomyosin

aerobic respiration

includes glycolysis, the TCA cycle & respiratory electron transport and chemiosmosis.

glucose

from foods, and glycogen stored in liver & muscles.

lactic acid fermentation

occurs when oxygen becomes limiting.

creatine

is broken down into creatinine, which is then eliminated by the kidney.  High levels of blood creatinine is an indication of kidney malfunction.

oviparity

embryonic development in egg outside of mothers body, nutrients come from egg yolk ex: birds, some fish, amphibians, repltiles, insects, spider

ovoviparity

ebryonic development in egg inside the mothers body until hatching, nutrients from egg yolk, ex: some sharks, fish, amphibains

viviparity

embryonic development inside mother until live birth, nutrients from mothers blood strem ex: mammals

asexual reproduction

via simple (mitotic) cell division or fragmentation.

sexual reproduction

via the production & fusion of meiotic gametes (sperm & eggs).

fragmentation

as in Starfish & Sponges.

cell division (binary fission)

as in unicellular protists.

hypothalamus secretes..

gonadotropin releasing hormone

FSH stimulates

sperm production by testes.

LH

promotes release of androgens (testosterone).

anterior pituitary

releases follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) & luteinizing hormone (LH).

advantages of asexual reproduction

faster, beneficial in stable, unchanging habitats, beneficial for stable populations

advantages of sexual reproduction

produces genetically unique organisms

hermaphrodite

an organism that has both male and female reproductive organs.

Occurs mainly in the invertebrates (& plants). ex: tapeworms, earthworms

testes

male gonads, produce sperm cells, secretes testosterone and other androgens.

epididymus

a duct emerging from testes where sperm cells are collected, matured and stored prior to ejaculation.

vas deferens

thick-walled tubes (or ducts) that serve in the rapid transport of sperm cells from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct via the seminal vesicle.

seminal vesicles

secrete fluids containing fructose and prostaglandins that are mixed with sperm to become part of seminal fluid.

ejaculatory ducts

mix seminal fluids and forcefully eject them into and through the penis.

prostate gland

secretes fluids that become part of the semen to help neutralize the acidic pH of the female reproductive tract.

bublbourerethral gland

(aka Cowper’s glands) secrete a cleansing and lubricating mucus into urethra prior to the entrance of the semen.

developing to sperm cells takes ________ to occur

2.5-3 months

secondary spermatocyte

haploid

primary spermatocyte

diploid, in prophase of meiosis 1

_________ sperm are released into the center of seminiferous tubule and trasnferred to epidiymus

immature

it takes ________ to go from diploid cell to developing sperm cell

3 days

meiosis starts during ….

fetal development (at 4 months development)

Meiosis I resumes at _____

puberty