Ethics Exam 1

Ethics Definition

Systematizing, defending, and justifying right and wrong behavior.

Ethical Arguments Definition

Argument with conclusion that claims some action is good/bad, right/wrong, or that we should/shouldn’t perform one action.

Normative vs Descriptive

Normative premise: makes claim about how things SHOULD be, or something being good/bad (opinion).

Descriptive premise: describes facts about the world (fact).

What must ALL ethical arguments have?

At least one normative premise + a normative conclusion

Is-Ought Fallacy Definition (+example)

When a conclusion expresses what ought to be, solely based on what is true of the world.

Example: “Breastfeeding is the natural way to feed an infant." Therefore, "Mothers ought to breastfeed and never use formula”

Slippery Slope Definition (+example)

Suggest that if you allow a certain thing to happen, a chain of undesirable events will follow.

Example: “If you give this person a cookie, then EVERYONE will want one”

Sophistry Definition

Use of fallacious reasoning and deceptive argument.

Moral Skepticism

Philosophical position that suggests that there can be no moral knowledge- moral claims are not t/f, they are just a matter of customs.

Psychological Egoism

The view that all people are selfish in everything that they do- only motive for action is self-interest.

(help a lady across the street for one’s own peace of mind)

Ethical Egoism

The ethical view that people are only ever morally obligated to act in their own self-interest— says people SHOULD act in self interest and people are never morally required to help anyone but themselves

False dichotomy fallacy

Suggests there are only two choices when there are actually more.

Altruism

Acting in the best interest of other people

Moral isolationism

Ethical position that suggests respecting other people’s cultures means never taking up a critical position on practices that are foreign to you.

Universalism vs relativism

Universalism: belief that certain moral principles apply universally

Relativism: belief that certain moral principles apply only to certain people

Individualism vs cultural

Types of moral relativism: individualism is morals that apply to ONE person and cultural is morals that apply to one culture

Hasty generalization fallacy

Passing a judgement on a group based on too few experiences

Cultural Imperialism

Pushing one way of life or thinking onto another culture

What is James Rachels’ “minimum conception of morality”?

Morality is trying to make good decisions using good reasoning

To be moral: reason + objective/unbiased = making good decisions

What is moral skepticism? Why does Rachels refer to The Ring of Gyges when discussing moral skepticism?

• philosophical position that suggests that there can be no moral knowledge

• Ring of Gyges: young shepherd explores a crack in the earth left by an earthquake, finds treasures and takes a ring, finds it can turn him invisible, uses it to seduce the queen and become king

  • uses this example bc it shows ppl will do what is morally incorrect if there is no consequences

What is the difference between psychological and ethical egoism? What are the three confusions Rachel’s suggest undermine the idea of psychological egoism? Can ethical egoism be as easily dismissed?

• psychological egoism is the view that all ppl are selfish and ethical egoism is the view that people only need to act within their own self interest

• not easily dismissed because any behavior could always be explained in one’s own self-interest

  • ie. doing it for peace of mind

• 3 confusions:

1. assumes selfishness and self-interest are the same thing, but people can do what is in their own self-interest without it being selfish (going to the doctor; in ones own interest for their health but is not selfish)

2. Assumes that all acts are either done from self-interest or other-regarding interest — false dichotomy

3. assumes that being concerned for your own well being is incompatible with being concerned for others — your interests can be aligned with others and can want ourselves AND others to be happy

Is moral judgment and evaluation possible across cultures?

Moral judgment and evaluation is possible across cultures

Mary midgleys premises:

1. it is not impossible to make an evaluation of practices that are unfamiliar— they can’t be quick judgements tho and you must be willing to take judgements in turn

2. moral isolationists would also have to withhold PRAISE from other cultures

3. moral isolationism does not give us a way to decide what makes a culture different from ours— another country, family, person?? under moral isolationism, we could never pass judgement outside of a small circle

teleology

Aristotles philosophical method: Teleology: the philosophical attempt to explain the universe in terms of ends or final causes

Doxa

commonly held beliefs

external goods

to reach eudaemonia (happiness, well favored by the gods) must have external goods: things beyond your own choices/behavior (some measure of wealth, beauty, friends & fam)

eudaemonia

General definition: happiness, well-being, flourishing

Aristotle’s definition: “The virtuous activity of the soul in accordance with reason”

habituation

cultivating habits with practice over time

the doctrine of the mean

middle ground between two extremes

virtue ethics

virtue comes from the gods and can be learned thru habituation— find the middle of two virtues until u become the most virtuous

voluntary acts

acts done intentionally and with knowledge

Involuntary Acts

acts not under your control

non voluntary acts

acts that APPEAR to be under ur control but really aren’t (sleepwalking)

virtuous person (eudaimon)

no longer pulled by appetites, finds pleasure in being virtuous

Vicious Person

finds pleasure in doing bad things, reasons that doing bad things is good (for him or her)

strong willed

Uses reason to fight appetites and passions and succeeds often

weak willed

Feels the pull of reason, but cannot resist one’s appetites/passions

socratic intellectualism

true knowledge will always guide behavior

What is the difference between ethics and politics, for Aristotle?

politics determines the telos (purpose, end, goal, what you should aim to be) for the state, ethics determines the telos for one man

Can you explain how Aristotle uses a teleological approach to discover what the best life is for a human being? Make sure you can describe how the teleological method would be applied to different kinds of objects.

• Aristotle believes everything has a telos (purpose)

  • acorn → to become a tree

  • glasses → to help see

  • phone → to give info, call, message, etc

    • not everything has ONE purpose

• our telos informs our end— what is humans final, chief end?

What does Aristotle suggest is the end (or purpose) of human beings? Be able to reference Aristotle’s Theory of Souls in reference to this

Aristotle believes the end of human beings is happiness (eudaemonia)

• surveys the dosa (commonly held beliefs) to answer— everyone says happiness is the point of life

• Theory of souls: everything living has a soul

  • animals: motile souls

  • plants: nutritive souls

  • humans: rational souls (sets us apart)

    • so, to become eudaimon, we need to use reason

What does Aristotle mean when he says that the telos of a human being must be “final” and “self-sufficient”?

final: desireable in itself, not for the sake of something else

self-sufficient: by itself, would make a life desirable

What is Aristotle’s Doctrine of the Mean? How does Aristotle use The Doctrine of the Mean to help guide individuals to Eudaimonia?

• doctrine of the mean: to determine how to act virtuously, must find the mean (middle/balance between outcomes)

  • our human capacity can help us find the mean

• in the doctrine of the mean, acting in excess or deficiency of the mean will prevent us from reaching eudaimon

• finding the center will make us virtuous and therefore eudaimonous

What are the means of different virtues?

What is the difference between voluntary, involuntary, non-voluntary acts, for Aristotle? How might instances of people being overwhelmed by their emotions or desires (like anger) fit into Aristotle’s discussion of these different types of acts?

• voluntary— do something within your control with knowledge

• involuntary— something outside of your control, without knowledge

• non voluntary— something that appears to be within your control but is not (done with ignorance)

  • being overwhelmed by emotion (for Aristotle) → voluntary (?)

what are the 6 different kinds of character traits for Aristotle? be able to describe them all using examples, especially for the ones that are most common.

good characters:

• superhuman virtue (think like god or superman— literally saintlike)

• virtuous person: no longer pulled by appetites, finds pleasure in being virtuous

• strong willed: uses reason to fight appetites and desires and succeeds often (acts in moderation by not buying a coffee despite really wanting one)

bad characters:

• brutishness (downright evil)

• vice/vicious person: finds pleasure in doing bad things, reasons that doing bad things is good (for him or her)

• weak willed: feels the pulls of reason but is unable to resist desires

what is the greatest of all external goods according to Aristotle?

friendship— essential part of a good life

what are the 3 kinds of friendship?

1. friendship of utility (transactional) = care for other based on some kind of good you get out of the relationship (ex. waiter you know well that will give you a discount)

2. friendship of pleasure= care for other is based on you getting pleasure from the relationship — not stable bc if the pleasure stops then caring stops (young love)

3. true friendship = only with the good and virtuous, wish them well for their own sake, enduring, permanent

Stoicism

a moral philosophy that recommends:

• living life in accordance with nature

• learning to accept what happens to you w/ tranquility

  • become immune to disappointment and pain

• prizes self sufficiency

stoa

greek word for column

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

A form of psychotherapy that emphasizes the important role of thinking in how we feel and what we do. teaches individuals that while we cannot always control things in life, we have control over how we think about them and respond to them

Rational Theism

the use of logic and reason to clarify and illuminate faith

Enchiridion

manual or handbook

The Problem of Evil

How can evil exist in the world if God also exists?

Socratic Intellectualism

The idea that knowledge of what is good will always direct our action

what is one example of augustine’s teachings

what is called evil in the universe is the absence of good. disease and wounds mean nothing but the absence of health— when cured, it does not mean the evils which were present (diseases and wounds) go away from the body and dwell elsewhere- they cease to exist.

What is Augustine’s philosophical methodology? What philosophical problem is Augustine considering in the Enchiridion on Faith, Hope and Love? How does he define evil as a result?

• rational theism

• Problem of evil— if we are all gods creations then we are good, but then how do ppl still do evil?

  • uses socratic intellectualism: knowledge of good will always redirect our actions, so errors come from ignorance and sometimes errors are actually good

  • HOWEVER- hates lying

• evil: absence of good

What are Augustine’s thoughts on lying and why it is a sin? Be sure to highlight how he uses Aristotle’s teleological method in his understanding.

• hates lying- believes it is a sin because humans were given speech as a gift and to use it for deceit is awful

  • teological explanation:Using speech to deceive is not using this “gift from God” for

    its appointed end.

Who said “The science of the good for man is politics?”

Aristotle

Who said “highest of all goods achievable by action“

Aristotle

“the good must be final and self-sufficient?”

Aristotle

Aristotle definition of eudaimonia

“The virtuous activity of the soul in accordance with reason“

“These acts cannot be prescribed exactly, but must avoid excess and defect”

Aristotle

His God is “supremely and equally and unchangeably good

Augustine

vices in the soul are nothing but privation of natural good” (216)

Augustine

“Every being, therefore, is a good; a great good, if it cannot be corrupted; a little good, it if can” (216)

Augustine

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