Psychology Chapters 6-9: Sensation, Learning, Memory, and Cognition

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering basic principles of sensation, perception, learning theories, memory stages, cognitive problem-solving biases, and language development from psychology lecture notes.

Sensation

The process by which sensory receptors and the nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from the environment.

Perception

The processes of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize important senses and events.

Bottom-up Processing

Information processing that starts with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain to complete a mental picture, relying directly on incoming sensory data.

Top-down Processing

Information processing guided by how the brain uses prior knowledge, memories, and expectations to interpret new sensory information.

Three Steps Basic to All Sensory Systems

1: Receive sensory stimulation, often using specialized receptor cells; 2: Transform that stimulation into neural impulses; 3: Deliver the neural information to the brain.

Absolute Threshold

The minimum stimulus energy needed for a person to detect a sensory input at least $50\%$ of the time.

Transduction

The conversion of one form of energy into another.

Single Detection Theory

A theory that predicts how and when we will detect a faint stimulus amid background noise.

Weber's Law

The principle that the just-noticeable difference between two stimuli is a constant proportion of the original stimulus intensity, meaning humans perceive relative change rather than absolute change.

Sensory Adaption

The automatic, physiological process where sensory receptors decrease their responsiveness to a constant, unchanging stimulus over time.

Perceptual Set

A mental predisposition to notice certain sensory details and ignore others based on expectations and past experiences.

Context Effects

The phenomenon where a given stimulus triggers different perceptions due to the immediate surrounding context.

Learning

The process of acquiring new knowledge, skills, behaviors, values, and understanding through study, experience, or instruction.

Classical Conditioning

An unconscious learning process where a naturally occurring automatic response becomes associated with a previously neutral environmental signal.

Unconditioned Stimulus

Any event or stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a reaction without any prior learning or training (e.g., food).

Conditioned Stimulus

A previously neutral signal that, through repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, eventually triggers a learned, conditioned response (e.g., a bell).

Unconditioned Response

An automatic, natural reaction that occurs without any prior learning or training (e.g., salivating in response to food).

Conditioned Response

A learned, automatic reaction to a previously neutral stimulus that develops through repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., salivating to a bell).

Extinction

The gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned behavior when it is no longer reinforced or paired with its previous triggers.

Operant Conditioning

A method of learning where voluntary behavior is modified by its consequences, such as rewards or punishments.

The Law of Effect

Edward L. Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by discomfort are less likely to occur again.

Positive Reinforcer

A rewarding or favorable stimulus added after a specific behavior to increase the likelihood that the behavior will occur again.

Negative Reinforcer

An unpleasant or aversive stimulus whose removal, reduction, or avoidance strengthens a behavioral response.

Positive Punishment

An operant conditioning method where an unpleasant consequence or aversive stimulus is added immediately after an unwanted behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior recurring.

Negative punishment

a desirable stimulus or privilege is removed immediately after an unwanted behavior occurs, with the goal of decreasing the likelihood that the behavior will happen again Ex) Latasha parents stop paying for her cell phone when they hear she is not attending classes. 

Reinforcement Schedules

The rules or protocols that determine exactly when and how often a behavior will be rewarded.

Variable-Ratio Schedule

An operant conditioning reinforcement schedule where a behavior is rewarded after an unpredictable, average number of responses.

Fixed-Interval Schedule

An operant conditioning reinforcement schedule where the first response is rewarded only after a set, predictable amount of time has elapsed.

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

An operant conditioning reinforcement schedule where a reward is delivered only after a specific, unchanging number of responses have been completed.

Variable-Interval Schedule

An operant conditioning reinforcement schedule where a reward is delivered for the first target response after an unpredictable, changing amount of time has elapsed.

Observational Learning

The process of acquiring new skills, behaviors, or attitudes by watching and modeling another person rather than relying on direct experience.

Memory

The persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

Recall

The mental process of retrieving previously learned information or past experiences from long-term memory without the aid of a specific external cue.

Recognition

The process of identifying an item as something previously learned (e.g., on multiple-choice exams).

Relearning

The process of learning something more quickly the second time it is studied or encountered.

Encoding

The first stage of memory formation where the brain takes in raw sensory information from the world and converts it into a mental code or trace that can be stored and later retrieved.

Sensory Memory

The initial, ultra-short-term stage of memory that briefly holds raw, unprocessed information from the five senses (sight, hearing, touch, taste, smell) for a fraction of a second to a few seconds.

Misattribution

A cognitive bias where an individual mistakenly assigns a thought, feeling, memory, behavior, or physiological state to the wrong source, cause, or origin.

Recovered Memory Debate

The debate over whether memories of past traumatic events (such as childhood sexual abuse) can be completely forgotten or 'repressed' and later accurately remembered, particularly during psychotherapy.

Implicit Memory

Memories that form through automatic processes and bypass the conscious encoding tract (e.g., knowing how to ride a bike, conditioned associations).

Explicit Memory

Memories of conscious facts and experiences encoded through conscious, effortful processing.

State-Dependent Memory

The phenomenon wherein people recall information more effectively if their internal physical or mental state during retrieval matches their state during encoding.

Mood Congruent Memory

The psychological tendency to more easily recall memories and details that match one's current emotional state.

Serial Position Effect

The tendency where the last thing experienced is the most likely to be recalled (e.g., remembering the end of a lecture rather than the beginning).

Proactive Interference

An interference type where older memories make it difficult to form or recall new memories.

Retroactive Interference

An interference type occurring when newly learned information disrupts the ability to recall older memories.

Concept

A mental category that groups similar objects, events, people, or ideas based on shared properties or characteristics.

Prototype

A mental representation that serves as the best or most typical example of a category.

Algorithm

A structured, step-by-step set of rules or procedures that guarantees a correct and accurate solution to a problem when followed properly.

Insight

The sudden, clear realization or understanding of a problem's solution, or a deep emotional and mental awareness of one's own motivations, thoughts, and behavioral patterns.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information that validates pre-existing beliefs or expectations while ignoring or discounting contradictory evidence.

Fixation

A persistent, obsessive focus on an early stage of development, an object, or a specific way of thinking that leaves an individual mentally 'stuck.'

The Availability Heuristic

A mental shortcut causing individuals to estimate the frequency, probability, or risk of an event based on how readily examples come to mind.

Receptive Language

The ability to comprehend, process, and make sense of incoming spoken, written, or nonverbal communication. Ex) babies are born prepared to learn language.

Production Language

The cognitive and motor process of converting an abstract thought or intended message into spoken, signed, or written language.