Corrections Chapters 6–8: Prisons, Reentry, Juvenile Justice

What is prison classification?

A system used to assign incarcerated people to custody and supervision categories to improve safety, management, and appropriate placement.

What factors are used in prison classification?

Conviction offense, age, gender, risk or custody level, gang affiliation, institutional adjustment, and motivation.

What is disenfranchisement?

Loss or restriction of voting rights; more broadly, barriers preventing full participation in civic life.

What are the main population drivers of incarceration?

New prison admissions and length of stay in custody.

How can sentencing policy contribute to mass incarceration?

Policies that increase admissions or extend prison terms raise the prison population, even when crime trends do not rise.

What does the Eighth Amendment prohibit?

Cruel and unusual punishment; in prisons this applies to constitutionally unacceptable confinement conditions, including certain severe overcrowding situations.

How is prison overcrowding harmful?

It places pressure on housing, safety, health care, staffing, and programming and may result in unconstitutional conditions.

What was the significance of Brown v. Plata?

The Supreme Court upheld a population-reduction order addressing severe overcrowding and constitutionally deficient medical and mental-health care in California prisons.

What is the Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP)?

The federal agency responsible for managing federal prisons; it was established in 1930.

What is a federal penal code crime?

An offense violating federal law, such as interstate drug trafficking, tax evasion, bank robbery, mail fraud, immigration violations, or offenses on federal property.

When was the first federal prison established?

1891; the construction took more than 10 years.

Which states have the highest incarceration rates?

Mississippi, Louisiana, Georgia, Oklahoma, and Alabama.

Which three states account for about 25% of state prisoners?

California, Texas, and Florida.

What is protective custody?

A separate custody arrangement used to protect a prisoner who faces threats or victimization.

What is a supermax prison?

A highly restrictive maximum-security institution or unit housing people considered particularly dangerous, violent, escape-prone, or disruptive.

What conditions are typical in supermax confinement?

22-24 hours per day in a small cell, meals through a door slot, minimal human contact, limited showers, and tightly controlled exercise.

What does SHU stand for?

Special Housing Unit or Security Housing Unit; a highly restrictive unit within a prison.

What is the UN Mandela Rules standard on prolonged solitary confinement?

Prolonged solitary confinement is defined as more than 15 consecutive days and is prohibited.

How do minimum, medium, and maximum security prisons differ?

They differ in physical barriers, staffing, surveillance, movement restrictions, rules, and the security risks of the people housed.

What is a panopticon design?

A circular prison design meant to allow observation of many cells from a central watch point.

What determines a prison facility security level?

Architecture, external barriers, cameras, staff-to-prisoner ratio, counts, technology, and how regimented daily activities are.

What is reentry?

The transition from prison back into the community, including arranging housing, work, services, support, and supervision.

What percentage of prisoners are eventually released?

About 95%.

What share of released prisoners receive post-release community supervision?

About 66%.

What is the most immediate concern upon release?

Housing; about 75% initially stay with family or significant others.

What is discretionary parole?

Conditional release granted through a parole authority or board decision rather than automatic release at a fixed point.

What is unconditional release?

Release from incarceration without ongoing parole supervision or its conditions.

How is parole different from probation?

Parole is community supervision after imprisonment; probation is a community-based sentence imposed by a court.

What is post-release correctional supervision?

Monitoring and support in the community after incarceration, such as parole or supervised release.

What is the purpose of parole supervision?

Surveillance and accountability, with supervision intensity based on risk assessment.

What are standard parole conditions?

Do not commit crimes, report jobs/moves/travel/arrests, follow officer directions, obtain stable housing, maintain employment, and sometimes pursue schooling.

What are examples of special parole conditions?

Drug testing, treatment participation, abstaining from alcohol, curfews, travel restrictions, no weapons, community service, or restitution.

How frequently can parole check-ins occur?

Requirements vary, from weekly officer check-ins to monthly kiosk reporting, based on risk and conditions.

What is parole revocation?

Formal withdrawal of parole due to a violation, potentially resulting in return to incarceration.

What are common reasons for parole revocation?

A new offense, drug-related violation, or absconding from supervision.

What did Morrissey v. Brewer (1972) establish?

People facing parole revocation have due-process protections, including required hearings rather than arbitrary revocation.

What options can authorities consider after a parole violation?

No additional action, modifying conditions, or revoking parole and returning the individual to prison.

What is a parole authority?

The state body or agency responsible for decisions about parole release and/or parole supervision.

Who may serve on parole boards?

Government representatives, local business owners, educators, church leaders, and others.

What is the average parole officer caseload?

38 parolees on average, with some caseloads as high as 150.

What education do many jurisdictions require for parole officers?

A bachelor's degree.

What share of states allow and require parole officers to carry firearms?

85% allow carrying firearms; 28% require carrying firearms.

What are the main offense categories of parolees?

32% violent, 31% drug, 21% property, 13% public order/other, and 4% weapons.

Why do infections spread readily in prisons?

Crowding, confined shared spaces, shared bathrooms, and activities such as needle sharing raise the risk of disease transmission.

What disabilities are highlighted among incarcerated people?

Hearing impairment, blindness or low vision, mobility difficulty, and other disabilities; 32% have at least one disability.

What do postrelease housing restrictions commonly affect?

Some sex offenders and violent offenders face restrictions on residence near parks or schools.

What are evidence-based practices (EBP)?

Programs or supervision strategies selected because research demonstrates effectiveness.

What is recidivism?

Reoffending after justice-system contact; studies may measure rearrest, reconviction, or return to prison.

What recidivism rates are reported in the BJS study?

Within 3 years: 68% rearrested, 50% returned to prison. Within 5 years: 77% rearrested, 55% returned.

What is the risk-needs-responsivity (RNR) model?

An evidence-based framework matching intensity to risk, targeting criminogenic needs.

What is the risk principle?

Higher-risk people need more intensive interventions; the intensity should match assessed risk.

What is the needs principle?

Focus programs on criminogenic needs rather than unrelated needs.

What is the responsivity principle?

Match program methods to an individual's learning style and characteristics.

What was the House of Refuge?

The first correctional facility dedicated to juveniles in New York.

What was the Theodore Lyman School?

The first statewide juvenile correctional facility in Massachusetts, established in 1847.

What was the Dozier School for Boys known for?

A Florida juvenile institution with a documented history of staff brutality and abuse.

What did the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act of 1974 do?

Created the federal Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

What are status offenses?

Acts prohibited because of a person's juvenile status, such as truancy or curfew violations.

What is bootstrapping in juvenile corrections?

Using minor probation misconduct as justification for placing a youth in confinement.

What is disproportionate incarceration of youth of color?

Racial or ethnic groups are confined at rates higher than their share of the youth population.

What services are juvenile facilities required to provide?

Education and higher staff-to-resident ratios.

What proportion of youth are in locked facilities with secure perimeters?

89%.

How long are most committed youth held?

68% of committed youth are confined 6 months or less.

What is malingering?

Faking illness or impairment to avoid an obligation.

What are juvenile boot camps?

Military-style facilities emphasizing strict discipline and punishment.

Why are Scared Straight programs criticized?

Intimidation-based exposure to prisons does not reliably reduce juvenile offending.

What is the Missouri Model?

A juvenile corrections approach relying on smaller, therapeutic facilities.

What did the predicted wave of juvenile super-predators amount to?

It did not materialize.

Why is youth recidivism difficult to compare between systems?

Many jurisdictions do not systematically track it.