simplified note cards for PHI exam2

What is moral relativism?

The idea that right and wrong depend on a person's culture or society.

What is cultural relativism?

The belief that what is morally right depends on the culture.

What is individual relativism?

The belief that what is morally right depends on the individual person's beliefs.

What is a major problem with moral relativism?

It becomes difficult to say that anything is truly wrong if morality is only based on opinions or cultures.

What is an example of a problem with cultural relativism?

If a culture accepts discrimination, cultural relativism makes it difficult to explain why that practice is wrong.

What is utilitarianism?

The theory that the morally right action is the one that produces the greatest overall happiness.

Who is associated with utilitarianism?

John Stuart Mill.

What is the principle of utility?

Choose the action that produces the greatest overall happiness for everyone affected.

What does utility mean in utilitarianism?

Happiness or pleasure, and the reduction of pain.

What does the greatest happiness principle mean?

An action is right if it creates more overall happiness than the alternatives.

Does utilitarianism focus mainly on intentions or consequences?

Consequences. The results of an action determine whether it is morally right.

What is consequentialism?

The view that whether an action is right depends on its consequences.

What is impartiality in utilitarianism?

Everyone's happiness matters equally; no person's happiness automatically counts more than another's.

What does it mean to maximize happiness?

Produce as much overall happiness as possible.

What is the difference between act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism?

Act utilitarianism judges each individual action; rule utilitarianism follows rules that generally produce the greatest happiness.

What is higher pleasure according to Mill?

A more developed pleasure involving the mind, learning, creativity, or understanding.

What is lower pleasure according to Mill?

A more basic physical pleasure, such as eating or relaxing.

What does Mill mean by it being better to be a dissatisfied human than a satisfied pig?

Higher intellectual pleasures can be more valuable than simple physical pleasures, even when they bring some dissatisfaction.

What is competent judge evidence?

If people who have experienced both higher and lower pleasures consistently prefer the higher ones, this supports their greater value.

What is one strength of utilitarianism?

It considers everyone's well-being and encourages reducing suffering.

What is one weakness of utilitarianism?

It can justify harming one person if doing so creates greater overall happiness for others.

What is the justice objection to utilitarianism?

Utilitarianism might allow unfair treatment of an innocent person if doing so benefits the majority.

What is the rights objection to utilitarianism?

It might violate an individual's rights to produce a better overall outcome.

What is the demandingness objection?

Utilitarianism may require people to sacrifice too much of their time, money, and happiness to help others.

What is the experience machine objection?

If pleasure were the only thing that mattered, we might choose a machine that gives us enjoyable experiences, but many people would rather experience real life.

What does the experience machine suggest?

Happiness or pleasure may not be the only thing that makes life valuable.

What is the problem of predicting consequences?

It is often difficult to know all the results an action will produce.

What is a thought experiment?

A hypothetical situation used to test a moral theory.

What is the point of a moral objection?

To show a possible problem or weakness in a moral theory.

What is Kantian ethics?

A moral theory that emphasizes duty, reason, and moral rules rather than simply consequences.

Who developed Kantian ethics?

Immanuel Kant.

What does Kant believe determines the moral worth of an action?

The reason or motive for doing it, especially whether it is done from duty.

What does it mean to act from duty?

Doing something because you recognize that it is morally required.

What is the difference between acting from duty and acting in accordance with duty?

Acting from duty means doing the right thing because it is right; acting in accordance with duty means doing the right thing for some other reason.

What is an example of acting in accordance with duty?

A shopkeeper treats customers fairly only because it helps the business make money.

What is an example of acting from duty?

A person tells the truth because they believe honesty is morally required, even when lying would benefit them.

What is a good will?

A will that chooses to do what is morally right because it is right.

Why does Kant value a good will?

It is morally good in itself, regardless of whether it produces successful results.

Does Kant believe good consequences are enough to make an action morally good?

No. The motive and whether the action follows moral duty matter.

What is the categorical imperative?

Kant's universal moral principle: act only according to a rule that you could rationally want everyone to follow.

What is a maxim?

The personal rule or principle behind an action.

What does it mean to universalize a maxim?

Imagine everyone acting according to the same rule.

What question do you ask when applying the universal law formulation?

Could I rationally want everyone to follow the rule I am using?

What happens if a maxim cannot be universalized?

According to Kant, the action is morally wrong.

What is a contradiction in conception?

A situation where universalizing a rule makes the rule or action impossible or self-defeating.

What is an example of a contradiction in conception?

If everyone made false promises, promises would lose their meaning and would no longer work as a way to gain trust.

What is a contradiction in will?

A situation where a universal rule is imaginable, but a rational person could not reasonably want to live in that world.

What is an example of a contradiction in will?

A world where nobody ever helps anyone, even though you could someday need help yourself.

What is the humanity formulation?

Treat humanity, in yourself and others, always as an end and never merely as a means.

What does it mean to treat someone as an end?

Respect their dignity, choices, and ability to make decisions for themselves.

What does it mean to treat someone merely as a means?

Use them only as a tool to achieve your own goal without respecting their agency.

Does Kant say we can never use other people to achieve goals?

No. We can cooperate with and rely on others, as long as we also respect them as people.

What is an example of treating someone merely as a means?

Lying to someone to get their money while preventing them from making an informed choice.

What is an example of treating someone as an end?

Being honest with someone and respecting their ability to decide whether to help you.

What is autonomy in Kantian ethics?

The ability to use reason and make moral choices for yourself.

Why is autonomy important to Kant?

People are rational beings who deserve respect and should not simply be manipulated or controlled.

What is a hypothetical imperative?

A command that applies if you want to achieve a particular goal.

What is an example of a hypothetical imperative?

If you want to pass the exam, you should study.

What is a categorical imperative?

A moral requirement that applies regardless of what goals or desires you have.

What is an example of a categorical imperative?

Do not lie merely because lying would benefit you.

What is the difference between hypothetical and categorical imperatives?

Hypothetical imperatives depend on a goal; categorical imperatives apply regardless of personal goals.

Why does Kant reject basing morality only on consequences?

Consequences are uncertain and can change, while moral duties should be grounded in reason.

What is one strength of Kantian ethics?

It protects human dignity and emphasizes fairness, honesty, and respect.

What is one weakness of Kantian ethics?

It can seem too strict when moral duties conflict or when following a rule produces terrible consequences.

What is the conflict-of-duties objection?

Situations can arise where two moral duties seem to conflict, making it difficult to know what to do.

What is the lying-to-protect-someone objection?

Kant's strict view against lying seems problematic when lying could protect an innocent person from harm.

What is the consequences objection to Kant?

Following a moral rule can sometimes produce worse consequences than breaking it.

What is the rigidity objection to Kant?

Kant's rules may seem too inflexible to handle complicated real-life situations.

What is the difference between Mill and Kant?

Mill focuses on consequences and overall happiness; Kant focuses on duty, motives, and moral principles.

If an action produces the most happiness but violates someone's rights, what might Mill say?

The action may be right if it truly maximizes overall happiness, although this is a major criticism of utilitarianism.

If an action produces good results but is done for selfish reasons, how might Kant judge it?

It may lack moral worth because it was not done from duty.

If everyone doing an action would make the action impossible, what Kantian test has failed?

The universal law formulation, through a contradiction in conception.

If a person lies to manipulate another person, which Kantian formulation does this violate?

The humanity formulation, because the person is being treated merely as a means.

If someone helps another person only because they expect a reward, is that acting from duty?

Not necessarily. They are acting for personal benefit rather than because they believe helping is morally required.

Why does utilitarianism count each person's happiness equally?

No individual's happiness should automatically matter more than another's.

Can utilitarianism consider long-term consequences?

Yes. It should consider both immediate and long-term effects when evaluating overall happiness.

Why can utilitarian calculations be difficult?

We may not know every consequence or how to compare different people's happiness accurately.

What is moral duty?

Something a person is morally required to do.

What is moral worth?

The degree to which an action deserves moral credit because of the motive behind it, especially in Kant's theory.

What is the difference between morality and personal preference?

Morality concerns what is right or wrong; personal preference concerns what someone likes or wants.

What is an impartial moral decision?

A decision that considers everyone affected fairly rather than favoring yourself automatically.

How would a utilitarian evaluate helping a stranger?

By considering whether helping produces more overall happiness than the available alternatives.

How would Kant evaluate helping a stranger?

By considering whether helping follows moral duty and respects the person's dignity.

What is the main question utilitarianism asks?

Which action produces the greatest overall happiness?

What is the main question Kantian ethics asks?

Am I acting from duty according to a moral rule that respects people?

What is the main idea of moral relativism?

Moral right and wrong depend on individual or cultural beliefs.

What is the main idea of Mill's utilitarianism?

Choose actions that maximize overall happiness and minimize suffering.

What is the main idea of Kantian ethics?

Do what duty and reason require, and treat people with respect.

What is a moral dilemma?

A situation where a person must choose between competing moral reasons or duties.

What should you do when evaluating a moral theory on an exam?

Explain the theory, apply it to the example, and discuss a strength or objection.

How do you explain utilitarianism in one sentence?

An action is right when it creates the greatest overall happiness for everyone affected.

How do you explain Kantian ethics in one sentence?

An action is morally right when it follows duty and respects people, rather than merely producing good results.

How do you explain moral relativism in one sentence?

What is considered right or wrong depends on the individual or culture.

What is the key difference between consequences and intentions?

Consequences are the results of an action; intentions are the reasons or motives behind it.

Why might Mill disagree with Kant about lying?

Mill may allow lying if it produces the greatest overall happiness, while Kant generally rejects lying as inconsistent with moral duty.

Why might Kant disagree with Mill about sacrificing one person for many?

Kant believes individuals must be respected as ends in themselves and not simply sacrificed to benefit others.

What is the best way to remember Mill?

Mill = maximizing happiness and focusing on consequences.

What is the best way to remember Kant?

Kant = duty, good will, universal rules, and respect for humanity.

What is the best way to remember the categorical imperative?

Only follow a rule you could rationally want everyone to follow.