HISTORY FINAL
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Where did the Industrial Revolution begin?
Britain, in the mid-18th century.
Why did the Industrial Revolution begin in Britain?
Coal and iron, capital, trade networks, agricultural change, workers, and political stability all helped.
What is the Industrial Revolution?
The shift from hand production and farming toward machine production and factory-based industry.
Why was coal important to industrialization?
It provided energy for steam engines, factories, iron production, and railways.
Why was iron important to industrialization?
It was used for machines, tools, bridges, railways, and industrial equipment.
What did the steam engine make possible?
Reliable mechanical power for factories, mines, railways, and steamships.
Who improved the steam engine for industrial use?
James Watt, whose improvements made it more efficient and practical.
What was the Spinning Jenny?
A machine that allowed one worker to spin multiple threads at once.
What was the water frame?
A water-powered spinning machine developed by Richard Arkwright.
What was the power loom?
A machine that mechanized weaving and increased textile production.
What was the factory system?
Production organized in centralized workplaces using machines and wage labor.
What is urbanization?
The growth of towns and cities as people move from rural areas, often for industrial jobs.
What was the proletariat?
The industrial working class, who generally owned no property and relied on selling their labor.
What was the bourgeoisie?
The middle and capitalist class, including factory owners, merchants, and professionals.
What were common conditions in early factories?
Long hours, low wages, dangerous machinery, poor ventilation, and little job security.
Why were children employed in factories and mines?
They were cheap to hire and small to fit into small spaces, despite dangerous conditions.
Who were the Luddites?
English textile workers who destroyed machinery they believed threatened their jobs and livelihoods.
What were trade unions?
Organizations formed by workers to bargain for better wages, hours, and conditions.
What is socialism?
A broad set of ideas seeking greater social and economic equality, often through collective or public control of resources.
Who wrote The Communist Manifesto?
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, published in 1848.
What did Marx and Engels argue drove history?
Class struggle, especially conflict between those who own productive property and those who work for them.
What was the Second Industrial Revolution?
A later wave of industrial change, roughly from the late 19th century, based on steel, chemicals, electricity, and petroleum.
Name four major technologies of the Second Industrial Revolution.
Examples: electric lighting, telephones, automobiles, chemicals/dyes, and improved steelmaking.
How did railways change society?
They moved people and goods faster, connected markets, and supported economic growth.
What is mass politics?
Politics involving increasingly large numbers of the population through voting, parties, newspapers, and movements.
What helped expand mass politics in the 19th century?
Wider male suffrage, literacy, newspapers, political parties, and organized labor.
What is suffrage?
The right to vote.
Did all adults gain the vote during the 19th century?
No. Voting rights expanded unevenly; women and many men remained excluded.
How did newspapers influence mass politics?
They spread political information, shaped public opinion, and helped mobilize voters.
What was the women's suffrage movement?
A campaign to secure women's legal and political right to vote.
What was the New Imperialism?
The rapid expansion of European overseas empire-building, especially from about 1870 to 1914.
What were economic motives for New Imperialism?
Access to raw materials, markets, investment opportunities, and profitable trade routes.
What were political and strategic motives for imperialism?
National prestige, military bases, strategic routes, and competition with rival powers.
How did racism justify imperialism?
Imperial powers used claims of racial hierarchy and supposed civilizing superiority to excuse domination.
What was Social Darwinism?
A misuse of evolutionary ideas to claim that some races or nations were naturally superior and entitled to dominate others.
What was the Scramble for Africa?
The rapid invasion and division of most of Africa by European powers in the late 19th century.
What was the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885?
A meeting where European powers set rules for claiming African territory; Africans were not represented.
Did the Berlin Conference include African representation?
No. European powers negotiated rules for colonization without African participation.
Who was King Leopold II?
Belgium's king, who controlled the Congo Free State and oversaw extreme exploitation and violence.
What was the Congo Free State?
A territory personally controlled by Leopold II from 1885 to 1908, marked by forced labor and atrocities.
What was the British Raj?
British rule over much of the Indian subcontinent from 1858 to 1947.
What were the Opium Wars?
19th-century wars in which Britain (and France) used force to secure trade and concessions from Qing China.
How did imperialism affect colonized peoples?
It often brought harsh rule, resource extraction, cultural disruption, and loss of political control, alongside varied local responses.
How did imperialism affect European rivalries?
Competition for colonies and strategic influence increased distrust and international tensions.
What was the Meiji Restoration of 1868?
The restoration of imperial rule in Japan that led to rapid state-led modernization.
Why did Japan industrialize and modernize rapidly in the late 1800s?
Leaders adopted foreign technology and institutions to strengthen Japan and resist Western domination.
What is the difference between colonialism and imperialism?
Imperialism is broader domination or influence; colonialism usually involves direct control and settlement or administration of territory.
How did New Imperialism contribute to tensions before World War I?
Colonial competition intensified rivalries, nationalism, and suspicion among European powers.
What financial problems helped cause the French Revolution?
Government debt, costly wars, royal spending, and an unfair tax system.
How did Enlightenment ideas influence the French Revolution?
They promoted liberty, equality, popular sovereignty, and challenges to absolute monarchy.
What was the Estates-General?
An assembly of representatives from France's three Estates, called in 1789 to address the financial crisis.
What was the National Assembly?
A body formed by Third Estate representatives who claimed to speak for the French nation.
What was the Tennis Court Oath?
The 1789 pledge by National Assembly members not to separate until France had a constitution.
Why was the storming of the Bastille important?
On July 14, 1789, it became a symbol of resistance to royal authority and popular revolution.
What did the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen proclaim?
Natural rights, legal equality, liberty, and the idea that sovereignty belonged to the nation.
What happened to the French monarchy in 1792?
The monarchy was abolished and France became a republic.
Who were the Jacobins?
A radical revolutionary political group that supported a republic and, during the Terror, strong emergency measures.
What was the Reign of Terror?
1793-1794, a period of revolutionary repression and mass executions, associated with Robespierre.
Who was Maximilien Robespierre?
A leading Jacobin who helped direct the Committee of Public Safety during the Reign of Terror.
What was the Committee of Public Safety?
The revolutionary government body that exercised emergency dictatorial powers during the Reign of Terror.
What was the Directory?
The five-man executive government that ruled France from 1795 to 1799.
How did Napoleon take power?
He carried out the Coup of 18 Brumaire in November 1799, overthrowing the Directory.
When did Napoleon become emperor?
1804.
What was the Napoleonic Code?
The 1804 civil code that standardized French law and affirmed legal equality for men, while limiting women's rights.
Name two major reforms Napoleon introduced.
Examples: centralized administration, standardized law, state-run education, and the Bank of France.
How did Napoleon maintain control/suppress dissent?
Through censorship, policing, propaganda, and restricting political opposition.
What was the Concordat of 1801?
An agreement with the Catholic Church that restored relations while keeping the state influential over the Church in France.
What was the Continental System?
Napoleon's attempt to weaken Britain by barring European trade with it.
Why did Napoleon invade Russia in 1812?
To force Russia to comply with the Continental System and maintain French dominance.
Why was the 1812 invasion of Russia disastrous?
Russian retreat, scorched-earth tactics, supply problems, disease, and winter devastated the French army.
What happened at the Battle of Leipzig in 1813?
A coalition defeated Napoleon in the Battle of Nations, forcing him to retreat from Germany.
Where was Napoleon first exiled?
The island of Elba in 1814.
What was the Hundred Days?
Napoleon's return to power in 1815 between his escape from Elba and his final defeat.
What happened at Waterloo in 1815?
British and Prussian forces defeated Napoleon, ending his rule.
What was the Congress of Vienna?
The 1814-1815 meeting where European powers reshaped Europe after Napoleon's defeat.
What did the principle of legitimacy mean at Vienna?
Restoring traditional ruling dynasties that had been displaced by Napoleon.
What did balance of power mean?
Arranging Europe so no single state could dominate the continent.
What was conservatism in the 19th century?
An ideology favoring tradition, established institutions, monarchy, and gradual rather than revolutionary change.
What was liberalism in the 19th century?
An ideology emphasizing individual rights, constitutional government, civil liberties, and often free markets.
What was nationalism?
The belief that people with a shared identity should have political unity or self-government.
How are liberalism and nationalism different?
Liberalism focuses on individual rights and political freedoms; nationalism focuses on national identity and self-rule.
What was the Concert of Europe?
A system of cooperation among major powers intended to preserve stability after 1815.
What was the purpose of the Holy Alliance?
Russia, Austria, and Prussia pledged to uphold Christian monarchy and oppose revolutionary movements.
What sparked the revolutions of 1830?
Liberal and nationalist opposition to conservative rule, including the overthrow of France's Charles X.
What was one result of the 1830 revolution in France?
Charles X was replaced by Louis-Philippe, a constitutional monarch.
Why did revolutions break out across Europe in 1848?
Economic hardship, food shortages, unemployment, demands for constitutions, and nationalist aspirations.
Why is 1848 called the 'Springtime of Peoples'?
Revolutions and nationalist uprisings spread across many European states.
Who participated in the revolutions of 1848?
Middle-class liberals, students, workers, nationalists, and other groups, often with conflicting goals.
Why did many 1848 revolutions fail in the short term?
Revolutionaries were divided, monarchies regrouped, and armies crushed uprisings.
Did the revolutions of 1848 matter even though many failed?
Yes. They spread liberal and nationalist ideas and pressured governments to reform over time.
What was the Risorgimento?
The movement for Italian national unification during the 19th century.
Who was Count Camillo di Cavour?
Prime minister of Piedmont-Sardinia who used diplomacy and war to advance Italian unification.
Who was Giuseppe Garibaldi?
A nationalist military leader who conquered Sicily and southern Italy with his Redshirts.
Who was Victor Emmanuel II?
King of Piedmont-Sardinia who became the first king of a united Italy in 1861.
When was the Kingdom of Italy proclaimed?
1861, although Rome and Venetia were not yet part of it.
When did Rome become part of united Italy?
Italian forces took Rome in 1870; it became the capital in 1871.
Who was Otto von Bismarck?
Prussian chancellor who led German unification through diplomacy, military strength, and realpolitik.
What did Bismarck mean by 'Blood and Iron'?
He argued that German unity would be achieved through military power and decisive action, not speeches alone.
What were the three wars associated with German unification?
War with Denmark (1864), Austro-Prussian War (1866), and Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871).