Neuroscience: Brain Structures, Functions, and Orientation

Rostral - caudal

Nose - Tail axis

Dorsal - Ventral

Back - Belly axis

Anterior - Posterior

Front - Back axis

Superior - Inferior

Top - Bottom axis

Medial

Towards the middle

Lateral

Towards the side

Ipsilateral

On the same side

Contralateral

On the opposite side

Distal

Far end of the limb

Proximal

Nearest point of the limb, where it attaches to the body

Axial

A horizontal slice, parallel to the floor when standing up

Sagittal

A vertical slice through the brain, cutting from the left side through the right side

Frontal (Coronal)

A vertical slice, cuts from the front of the brain backward

Lateral ventricles

Four spaces filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) at the center of the brain

Obstructive hydrocephalus

Condition resulting from increased pressure within the ventricles due to CSF flow interruption

Cerebral Cortex

The thick outer covering of the brain necessary for human cognition

Gyri

The rounded convolution of the cortex

Sulci

The grooves between the gyri

Thalamus

Receives sensory and regulatory input, involved in attention and consciousness

Hypothalamus

Maintains homeostasis and regulates the endocrine system

Homeostasis

The process of maintaining the body within a narrow range of physiological parameters

Basal Ganglia

Made up of the caudate, putamen, and globus pallidus, involved in selecting motor programs

Precentral gyrus

Also known as the primary motor cortex; responsible for the control of fine motor movement

Prefrontal cortex

Responsible for executive functions such as emotional regulation and planning

Prefrontal Lobotomy

Surgical disconnection of the prefrontal cortex from the rest of the brain

Spinal Cord

Extends from the medulla to the first lumbar vertebra, contains 31 spinal nerves

Meninges

the layers of membrane that cover the central nervous system (CNS)

Dura Mater

the outermost of the three layers of meninges

Arachnoid membrane

middle located located between dura mater and inner pia mater

Subarachnoid space

filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) between arachnoid and pia mater

Pia mater

layer of the meninges adjacent to the surface of the brain; thin, delicate

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

plasma-like fluid circulating within the lateral ventricles of brain; cushions the brain from impact or sudden changes in movement; prevents neurons from from firing due to mechanical pressure; circulates nutrients and removes metabolic waste

Carotid Artery

One of the two major blood vessels; travels up sides of neck to supply the brain

Vertebral Artery

one of the important blood vessels that enters the brain from the back of the skull

Central Nervous System (CNS)

includes brain and spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

the nerves exiting the brain and spinal cord serve sensory and motor functions for rest of the body

Spinal Cord

long cylinder of nervous tissue extending from the medulla to the first lumbar vertebra; carries tactile info from the skin up to the brain and sends signals down from the brain to control body movements; contains cell bodies of neurons whose axons can cause muscles to contract

Spinal Cord Anatomy

31 spinal nerves: (cervical, thoraic, lumbar, sacral, coccygeal)

Hindbrain

Medulla

Pons

Cerebellum

Brain Stem

Midbrain

sits above hindbrain and is center of the brain; coordinates the precise movement of the eyes

Forebrain

Thalamus

Hypothalamus

Basal Ganglia

Amygdala

Hippocampus

Cerebral Cortex

Limbic System:

Amygdala and Hippocampus

Amygdala

almond shaped, uses external sensory input to trigger emotional responses; damage can lead to abnormal emotional calmness or irrational violence

Hippocampus

creates memories of specific locations in space and specific events in time (learning and memory) damage causes anterograde amnesia

Cerebral Cortex

highest level of sensory and motor processing; highest cognitive activity: is a thick outer covering of the brain, human cognition

Frontal Lobe

Most rostral; bounded by the central sulcus (caudal) and lateral sulcus (ventral); controls planning, attention, judgement, voluntary motor control

Parietal Lobe

between frontal and occipital lobes (contains primary somatosensory cortex)

Temporal Lobe

ventral and lateral to the frontal/parietal lobes (primary auditory cortex)

Occipital Lobe

most caudal part of the cortex (primary visual cortex)

Medulla

breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure, contains nuclei serving several cranial nerves

Pons

sleep/waking cycles, mood, arousal, aggression, appetite; contains nuclei serving cranial nerves

Cerebellum

motor control, balance, cognition, learning: damage can cause problems in spatial reasoning, integrating input received from sensory systems, and some aspects of language

Frontal Lobe

Prefrontal cortex

Precentral gyrus

Prefrontal cortex

executive functions: emotional regulation, planning, aspects of memory amongst other higher level processes

CN 1 Olfactory Nerve

carries signals for the sense of smell from the nasal passage to the brain

CN 2 Optic

carries visuals signals from the retina to the thalamus

CN 3 Oculomotor

Controls eye movement and pupillary constriction

CN 4 Trochlear

controls eye movement

CN 5 Trigeminal

controls the muscles of mastication (chewing): involved in the sensation of touch and pain by the face and mouth

CN 6 Abducens

controls eye movement

CN 7 Facial and Intermediate

carries signals for the sense of taste (anterior 2/3 of tongue); controls the muscles of facial expression; involved in the secretion of tears and saliva

CN 8 Vestibulocochlear

carries signals for the sense of hearing and balance

CN 9 Glossopharyngeal

carries signals for the sense of taste (posterior 1/3 of tongue); mediates the swallowing reflex

CN 10 Vagus

a major input and output pathway for parasympathetic nervous system; senses aortic blood pressure; slows heart rate; stimulates digestive organs