Learn: Comprehensive Social Science Research Methods and Validity Concepts

What makes social science different from junk science?

It uses systematic methods, empirical evidence, logic, transparency, and testable claims.

What error occurs when a researcher makes a broad claim from only 15 interviews?

Overgeneralization: limited evidence is used to make a sweeping conclusion.

What question does descriptive research ask?

What is happening?

What question does exploratory research ask?

What is going on here?

What question does explanatory research ask?

Why is this happening?

What question does evaluation research ask?

Does a program, policy, or intervention work?

What is the deductive research process?

Theory → hypothesis → data → findings.

What is the inductive research process?

Data → patterns → explanation/theory.

What is a theory?

A systematic explanation of relationships among concepts.

What makes a research question empirically testable?

Researchers can collect observable evidence to investigate it.

What is a concept?

An abstract idea researchers want to study, such as self-control or poverty.

What is conceptualization?

Clarifying exactly what a concept means.

What is operationalization?

Determining exactly how a concept will be measured.

What is the difference between conceptualization and operationalization?

Conceptualization = WHAT it means; operationalization = HOW it is measured.

What is an indicator?

An observable, measurable representation of an abstract concept.

What is a variable?

Something that can take different values.

In 'Does self-control affect offending,' what is the IV?

Self-control; it is the presumed explanatory or predictive variable.

In 'Does self-control affect offending,' what is the DV?

Criminal offending; it is the outcome being explained or predicted.

What is a positive association?

Variables move in the same direction: X↑ → Y↑ or X↓ → Y↓.

What is a negative association?

Variables move in opposite directions: X↑ → Y↓.

What is the direction of the association between self-control and offending?

Negative: higher self-control is associated with lower offending.

What are three major data collection methods?

Available data, constructing questions, and observation.

What is available data?

Existing information such as government, police, court, census, or school records.

What is a double-barreled question?

A question asking about two concepts at once, such as police fairness AND effectiveness.

What is a leading question?

A question worded to encourage a particular response.

What makes observation systematic?

Clearly defined procedures for what behavior is observed and how it is recorded.

What is nominal measurement?

Categories with no order.

What is ordinal measurement?

Ordered categories where differences aren't necessarily equal.

What is interval measurement?

Equal intervals but no true zero.

What is ratio measurement?

Equal intervals plus a meaningful zero.

What is the memory trick for measurement levels?

NOIR: Names, Order, Intervals, Real zero.

What is reliability?

Consistency of measurement.

What is validity?

Whether a measure actually measures what it is supposed to measure.

What is test-retest reliability?

Same questionnaire given twice over time.

What does test-retest reliability examine?

Whether the same measure gives consistent results at different times.

What is interitem reliability?

Different items measure the same concept.

How can reliability be improved?

Use clear questions, standardized procedures, consistent instructions, and stable measures.

What is face validity?

The measure appears, on its face, to measure the intended concept.

What is content validity?

The measure adequately covers the full concept.

What is criterion validity?

The measure corresponds with an external criterion.

What is construct validity?

The measure behaves as theory predicts it should.

What is the memory trick for validity types?

Face = looks right; Content = coverage; Criterion = outside comparison; Construct = theory.

Can a measure be reliable but not valid?

Yes. It can consistently measure the wrong thing.

What is a population?

The entire group the researcher wants to understand.

What is a sample?

The subset of the population actually studied.

What is a sampling frame?

The actual list or source from which the sample is selected.

What is a sampling unit?

The unit actually being selected, such as a student, household, or school.

What is sampling error?

The difference between a sample characteristic and the corresponding population characteristic.

What is generalizability?

Whether findings can reasonably be applied beyond the people studied.

What is cross-population generalizability?

Applying findings from one population to a different population.

What defines probability sampling?

Random/chance selection with a known or nonzero probability of selection.

What defines nonprobability sampling?

Nonrandom selection where selection probabilities are not known.

What is simple random sampling?

Every population member has an equal random chance of selection.

What is systematic sampling?

Choose a random starting point, then select every nth person.

What is stratified sampling?

Divide into strata and randomly sample from every important subgroup.

What is cluster sampling?

Randomly select some groups/clusters, then study units within them.

What is the difference between stratified and cluster sampling?

Stratified = sample from every subgroup; cluster = select some entire groups.

What is convenience sampling?

Selecting whoever is easiest to access.

What is purposive sampling?

Deliberately selecting people because they meet a specific criterion.

What is quota sampling?

Recruiting until predetermined category targets are filled.

What is snowball sampling?

Participants recruit or refer other participants.

What is the fastest memory trick to differentiate probability and nonprobability sampling?

Probability = CHANCE; nonprobability = CHOICE.

What is the ecological fallacy?

Using group-level data to explain individuals: Group → Individual.

What is reductionism?

Using individual-level data to explain a group: Individual → Group.

What is the memory trick for ecological fallacy vs. reductionism?

Ecological fallacy = Group → Individual; reductionism = Individual → Group.

What should you identify first in a research scenario?

Identify what is being explained and what is doing the explaining.

How do you identify the independent variable (IV) in a scenario?

Find the variable presumed to influence, predict, or explain another variable.

How do you identify the dependent variable (DV) in a scenario?

Find the outcome being explained or predicted.

How do you determine association direction?

Ask whether increasing X makes Y increase or decrease.

What is the research chain from theory to data?

Theory → concept → conceptualization → operationalization → indicators/variables → data.

What does deductive research start with?

An existing theory or explanation.

What does inductive research start with?

Observations or data.

What is the main purpose of reliability?

To determine whether measurement is consistent.

What is the main purpose of validity?

To determine whether measurement captures the intended concept.

Which validity is weak when a measure covers only one part of a concept?

Content validity.

Which validity is used when a new measure is compared with official GPA?

Criterion validity.

Which validity is demonstrated when a theory predicts high self-control means less offending?

Construct validity.

Which validity is indicated when a measure looks like it measures depression?

Face validity.

What does 'population → sample' mean?

The sample is selected from the population of interest.

What does 'sampling frame' answer?

Where/how can researchers identify and select members of the population?

What sampling method is used when a computer randomly selects 500 students from a list?

Simple random sampling.

What sampling method is used when selecting every 20th person after a random start?

Systematic sampling.

What sampling method is used when researchers sample freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors?

Stratified sampling.

What sampling method is used when researchers randomly select 10 universities and survey students there?

Cluster sampling.

What sampling method is used when researchers survey whoever walks past the student union?

Convenience sampling.

What sampling method is used when researchers recruit probation officers with 5+ years experience?

Purposive sampling.

What sampling method is used when researchers need 50 men and 50 women and recruit until filled?

Quota sampling.

What sampling method is used when one participant refers another, who refers another?

Snowball sampling.

What error occurs when neighborhood poverty predicts neighborhood crime but the researcher says poor individuals offend more?

Ecological fallacy: group-level evidence is used to explain individuals.

What error occurs when individual interviews are used to explain why an entire neighborhood has high crime?

Reductionism: individual-level evidence is used to explain a group.

What are the three Belmont principles called?

Respect for persons, beneficence, and justice

What ethics topics should you know for this exam?

Belmont Report, informed consent, and research involving protected groups.

Which protected groups were specifically mentioned?

Children and incarcerated people.

What should an FRQ scenario answer identify?

Research type, IV, DV, direction, measurement, reliability/validity, and sampling when relevant.

What is the fastest FRQ structure?

Relationship → IV → DV → direction → measurement → reliability/validity.

What research type is indicated when a question asks whether unemployment predicts offending?

Explanatory research.

What research type is indicated when a study asks what percentage of students experience theft?

Descriptive research.

What type of research is indicated when researchers interview unfamiliar offenders to discover recurring themes?

Exploratory research.

What type of research is indicated when researchers test whether a juvenile program reduces reoffending?

Evaluation research.

What should you NOT focus on memorizing for this exam?

Specific criminological theories or empirical studies; focus on applying hypothetical scenarios.