CMY3708: Superset

The philosophy of science is an umbrella term for

- the different ways in which science and scientific research are approached from a philosophical point of view
- the impact that the philosophical assumptions, paradigms and methods used in research has on the generated knowledge.

In qualitative research, the data are mostly

written and spoken words or observations that do not have a direct numerical interpretation.

There are five philosophical assumptions in
qualitative research that will influence the design of the study and how the research study is conducted.

- ontology
- epistemology
- axiology
- rhetoric
- methodology

Ontological issues relate to

the nature of reality and its characteristics.

in qualitative research we study

people and their behaviour

the concept of ontology is concerned with

the objects and behaviour that we assume to exist in the world, as well as how these should be viewed and studied.

An awareness of ontological issues assists the researcher in

the construction of the research

epistemologists ask questions such as:

. What is knowledge and how do we know this?
. Are there different kinds of knowledge?
. Are there good procedures for discovering knowledge?
. Epistemology is concerned with analysing the nature of knowledge and the means of acquiring knowledge

important for the researcher to decide on the epistemological approach in a study because

it is fundamental to the formulation of a study's rationale and choice of research methodology.

Axiology refers to

the role of values and ethics in research

Rhetoric refers to

the ability to use language effectively and persuasively in order to capture the essence of a phenomenon.

The rhetorical approach in research therefore also represents

the philosophical assumptions of a study.

A qualitative study is characteristically inductive and shaped by

the researcher's collection and analysis of the data

philosophical assumptions are

a reflection of the particular stance a researcher takes in choosing a qualitative approach

A paradigm is

a model or framework for observation or understanding.

Paradigms represent

the shared ideas prevalent in a specific research
community

which approach do positivists believe are the best approach to study both natural and human phenomena

scientific methods

which are the only accepted way to obtain objective and scientific knowledge according to positivists

sensory observation, experimentation, testing
and generalisation of knowledge (findings)

positivists assume that

human behaviour and experiences can be observed, described, explained, predicted and controlled in the
same way as natural phenomena

Interpretivism is also referred to as

the anti-positivistic, or humanistic, approach

Interpretivism

acknowledges the differences between natural and human phenomena and claims that natural and human phenomena cannot be studied in the same way.

Interpretivists argue that

people do not live in an empirically observable reality, but in a world where they interact with each other and where their life-world is constructed through experiences, perceptions and interactions with other people.

Criminology's approach to the study of crime is unique because it follows

a multidisciplinary approach

Studies in which an interpretivist philosophy is followed aim

to understand the meaning people give to reality and how their reality is shaped and influenced by their perceptions and interactions with others.

with Interpretism the information is collected
by means of

personal interviews and the sample is collected by making use of a sampling technique where participants are chosen on the basis of their knowledge or experience of the topic being studied.

integrated philosophical approach

the researcher integrates aspects of both the positivist and interpretivist philosophy in a study

Empirical studies rely on

theoretical explanations of crime to inform the collection, analysis and interpretation of the data.
>>> theorists draw upon empirical research as a method to test theories and to develop new theories

the choice of philosophical approach depends on

the researcher's philosophical perspective, as well as the appropriateness of the philosophy in terms of the research goals

According to Lichtman (2010:5), qualitative research is a general term that represents

the way a researcher collects, organises and interprets information that has been acquired from humans, using their eyes and ears as filters.
>>> involves in-depth interviews or the observation of humans in their natural environment and social settings.

the purpose of qualitative research is to

examine the participants' understanding and views of their social environment.
>>> Emphasis is placed on the researcher's direct involvement in the research process.
>>> The researcher plays a fundamental role in the collection and interpretation of the data.

Dantzker and Hunter (2006:67) define qualitative research as

"an examination and interpretation of observations as expressed by the researcher's words rather than by numerical assignments''.

characteristics of qualitative research

- takes place in the natural setting
- interactive and humanistic and makes use of multiple methods to collect and analyse data.
- emergent rather than tightly prefigured; it tends to unfold as the research process progresses.
- fundamentally interpretive
- systematically reflect on their role in the research process and are mindful of their personal biography (preconceptions) and how this can influence and shape the study.
- views social phenomena holistically.
- uses complex reasoning that is multifaceted, interactive and simultaneous.

Purpose of qualitative research in criminology

structure the research question in such a way that the only way to answer it is by following a qualitative approach.

Loschper (2000) is of the opinion that the analysis of crime and criminal behaviour is concerned with

the interpretation of situations and actions

the advantage of qualitative methods is that they provide

a more in-depth understanding of crime, criminals and the justice system than would have been possible if only quantitative research was used.
>>> This is because the knowledge gained through qualitative research is more informative and richer and offers better understandings compared with those which can be obtained by means of quantitative research

Qualitative research is well suited to criminological research
because

it focuses on the meanings, traits and defining characteristics of events, people, interactions, settings/cultures and experience.

qualitative methods are ideal for

gaining true understandings of the social aspects of how crime occurs and how formal structures (police and the justice system) and informal structures (communities) react to this threat.

additional purposes of qualitative research in criminological studies

- Qualitative methods focus on depth rather than breadth, thus focusing on the quality of the data rather than the quantity thereof.
- Qualitative research aims to collect data in a naturalistic setting and to take the environment in which the phenomenon occurs into consideration.
- The focus of qualitative research is primarily on micro-level issues and it explores a wide range of aspects associated with the perspectives and functioning of the person(s), group(s) or setting(s) in order to create a holistic understanding of a phenomenon.
- Qualitative researchers build and advance theories.

The research process consists of a series of

logical decision-making steps.

research decision-making steps

Step 1: Choice of a research topic
Step 2: Formulating the problem
Step 3: Data collection
Step 4: Data processing and analysis
Step 5: Report writing

applied and evaluation research can be done by following either

a quantitative or qualitative approach.

Basic research is conducted solely for the purpose of

gathering information and building on existing knowledge.

basic research is viewed as

the purest form of research and is used to enrich the knowledge base in a specific discipline

basic research is done for the sake of

acquiring new knowledge and is not concerned with practical or real social problems

Applied research specifically aims to

do something practical about an identified problem.

primary focus of applied research is on

the production of knowledge that is practical and has immediate application to pressing problems of concern to society at large or to specific public or private research clients.

Applied research is used to investigate and solve

social problems

the approach of applied research is sometimes viewed as

less controlled, rigorous, potentially biased and untheoretical in its orientation

Applied research is widely used to

inform governmental policy and legislation, as well as to address pressing social issues such as crime and criminal behaviour.

differences between applied research and basic research is

- Applied research aims to improve our understanding of the problem, while basic research intends to expand our knowledge.
- Applied research is often confronted with undefined issues. Basic research is narrow in scope and is aimed at investigating a specific topic.
- Basic research is generally concerned with whether there is a causal relationship between variables and applied research, both practical and statistical significance is of importance
- Applied researchers are more interested in applying and using theories that could produce important, practical results, while basic research, it is the theory that is of primary importance.
- Applied research can be conducted in diverse contexts, such as schools, prisons and communities.
- Basic research, in contrast, is often conducted at
universities or in similar academic environments.
- Applied research is mostly conducted by a team of researchers, which is likely to be multidisciplinary. Basic research, in contrast, is typically conducted by an individual researcher who behaves autonomously and controls the scope and approach of the study

It is also important that the researcher have a clear understanding of

the discipline that underpins the study.

criminological theory is one of the primary sources of research topics for criminologists.

- Criminological theories provide an explanation as to why people commit crime and why crime occurs.
- Criminological theories are therefore a rich source of research questions.

The feasibility of the topic is concerned with

whether the researcher will be able to conduct the study within the allocated (or a reasonable) time frame and with the available resources.

Another factor that a researcher should consider in terms of the feasibility of a study is

whether he/she has the right qualifications and experience to do the study.

Scientific relevance

- research contributes to the growth and development of a discipline and prevents it from stagnating.
- grounded in existing empirical literature and theories.

The manner in which the researcher formulates the research problem is important because

it will determine the research method of the study
>>> indicates the parameters of the study.

Qualitative research is emergent in nature

rather than tightly prefigured.

The units of analysis are the

> Who - an individual, group of people or community (research sample)
> What - research problem, question or phenomenon that is being studied
> Where - demarcation of where the research is going to take place.

In qualitative research it is assumed that the concepts pertaining to a
phenomenon

have not all been identified, or have not been fully developed, or are poorly understood and need further exploration.

Although research problems in qualitative research tend to be broad,

the problem should not be too broad, thus giving rise to unlimited possibilities.

the research goal indicates

the purpose of the research

criminological and social science research falls with four categories

- descriptive
- exploratory
- explanatory
- evaluation

the research strategy deals with

the research approach

Empirical data collection

is the data that the researcher collects from the actual study.

The literature review informs the empirical study but

does not form part of it.

The difference between the literature review and empirical data collection lies in

the purpose of the actions

Topic-related literature deals with

the subject that is being studied

method-related literature deals with

the methods and methodology that are used in a research project.

Method literature relates to

how to use different techniques of data collection and analysis in research projects

Topic-related literature can be divided into

primary and secondary sources

Primary sources are

authentic and the content of the literature has not been analysed or summarised by another person.

secondary source

the information from a primary source has been reworked and has either been analysed or summarised by other people.

the purpose of a literature review/study is to

- introduce the researcher to similar research
- provide examples of research methods that were used previously to solve similar problems
- introduce the researcher to previously unknown sources of data and/or leading experts in a specific field
- help researchers to evaluate their own efforts by comparing them with the research of other human scientists
- assist the researcher to establish whether a research topic is relevant and has professional and practical significance

Hart (in Bachman & Schutt 2011:30) is of the opinion that a literature review should accomplish three goals:

- summarise previous research,
- critique prior research
- present pertinent conclusions.

criminological theories can assist a researcher to

- understand and explain behaviour and specific phenomena, such as why some people commit crime and others do not
- examine whether poverty causes crime
- explain why some people are prone to victimisation
- make predictions about the criminological world,
- organise and make sense of empirical findings
- help guide research and the research process
- inform policy, for example policy on how to deal with victims of crime

The literature review is important because

it assists the researcher to become familiar with the topic being studied.

In qualitative research, the literature study can assist the researcher to

make sense of the topic and to structure information and the research process in general

qualitative interviews are

in-depth conversations between a researcher and participants for the purpose of collecting information (data) in research

Qualitative observation

process that enables researchers to learn about the interaction, behaviour and perceptions of the participants in their natural environment by observing and participating in those group activities. This enables researchers to develop a holistic understanding of the phenomena they study.

Bachmann and Schutt (2011:258) identify three roles that researchers
can play in qualitative

complete observation the researcher tries to observe things as they happen, without disrupting the participants.

It has also been found that the longer the period of observation

the less the impact will be on the participants

Participation and observation

The participants are generally aware of the researcher's
observation role but the researcher will participate in enough group activities to develop rapport with the participants and to gain a direct sense of the group's experiences and perceptions

In covert participation

also known as complete participation, the researcher studies participants without their knowing it.

covert participation is difficult because

the researcher cannot openly take notes or ask questions without arousing suspicion.

Documented data

text-based files that may include primary data (collected by the researcher) or secondary data (collected and archived or published by others), as well as photographs, charts and other visual materials.

In a qualitative study, empirical data documents can include

transcriptions of interviews; participant observation field notes; photographs of field situations taken by the researcher as a record of specific activities; video and audio recordings of rituals; and maps and diagrams drawn by the researcher or by field assistants or participants in a study

how does secondary documents act as empirical data in a qualitative study?

These documents contain information that is important in describing the historical back-ground and/or current situation in a community or country.

The data collection cycle

- Locating the research site and participants
- Gaining access and building/establishing rapport
- Sampling
- Collecting data
- Recording information
- Resolving field issues

Sampling can be divided into

probability and non-probability sampling methods.

Probability sampling implies that

every person in the population has a chance of being selected as part of the sample to participate in the study.

non-probability sampling is

any sampling method where some of the population have no chance of being selected because they do not possess the specified characteristics to fulfil the requirements of the study.

The difference between non-probability and probability sampling is that

non-probability sampling does not involve random selection, whereas probability sampling does

According to Creswell (2007:125), purposeful sampling is synonymous with qualitative research because

the researcher can select participants and research sites that are associated with the phenomenon and research problem being studied.

3 guidelines suggested for selecting participants for purposive sampling

- knowledgeable about the subject or phenomenon that is being studied
- willing to participate in the study
- representative of the range of points of view

In terms of the size of the sample, it is suggested that

researchers continue to select participants until they have achieved completeness and saturation.

In quota sampling, quotas are set to ensure that

the sample represents certain characteristics in proportion to their prevalence in the population.

In qualitative interviews, the concept of saturation can be used to

determine the sample size.

type of data collected will depend on

the data collection method used

The researcher should record information or data collected during

interviews, observations and document analysis.

Field issues involve

all the operational challenges a researcher might face during the process of data collection.