AP Psych Unit 1

Heredity

Genetics, “Nature”, refers to the genetics or predisposed characteristics that influence physical, behavioral, and mental traits

Environment

The surroundings and conditions that influence an individual's development, behavior, and traits, commonly referred to as "Nurture" in psychology.

Examples of Heredity (nature)

Height, Eye and Hair color, Sex, Medical Predispositions

Examples of Environment (Nurture)

Parenting, Social Interaction, Education, Diet, External Stimuli

Evolutionary Psychology

An approach to psychological inquiry that views human cognition (mental processes) and behavior through the lens of Darwinian Evolution

Charles Darwin

(1809-1882), English Naturalist, Proposed the Theory of Evolution, Involved processes of Natural Selection

Natural Selection

Forces such as competition for resources, disease, and climate tend to eliminate individuals who are less well-adapted to the environment

Environmental Psychologists

 Examine the role of natural selection in the evolution of psychological mechanisms which allow adaptation to recurring behavioral problems relevant to the survival of the species

Eugenics

• A social and political philosophy loosely based on Darwin’s Theory of Evolution and the Hereditary Genius theory of Francis Galton

  • Seeks to eradicate genetic defects and improve the genetic makeup of populations through selective human breeding

Positive Eugenics

• promotes reproduction by individuals who have traits viewed as more desirable (does not mean doing something good; it means doing something extra)

Negative Eugenics

Seeks to prevent reproduction by individuals who have traits deemed as undesirable (Negative=taking something away)

Identical twins

• (monozygotic)

  • A single fertilized egg that has split into two

Fraternal twins

• (dizygotic)

  • Two separate eggs fertilized by two different sperm cells

Twin Studies

Compare sets of twins who were reared (raised) together and separately to see if genetics or the environment had a bigger effect on factors such as intelligence and personality, which is good to use to determine whether environment or heredity determines traits more

Family Studies

Research conducted among siblings, parents, or children to assess evidence for genetic links for characteristics or outcomes, often related to health or disease

Adoption Studies

Investigates the relationships among genetic and environmental factors in the development of personality, behavior, or disorders by comparing similarities of biological parent-child pairs with those of adoptive parent-child pairs

What nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord?

Central Nervous system

What protects the spinal cord?

• Spinal cord protected by the spinal column of bony vertebrae

  • Extends from the upper part of the lower back upward to the base of the skull

  • H-Shaped area of gray cell bodies

  • Composed mostly of interneurons and glial cells

Peripheral Nervous System(PNS)

• Carries sensory information to, and motor information away from the CNS

• Divided into two subdivisions

Somatic Nervous System

• Controls motor functions

  • Gross and fine motor functions

    • Gross: the functions that a baby would learn first

Autonomic nervous system

• Controls INVOLUNTARY actions 

  • Heartbeat, breathing, reflexes

What does the Peripheal Nervous system break into?

Autonomic and Somatic Nervous system

Which nervous system breaks into sympathetic and parasympathetic?

Autonomic Nervous system

Sympathetic Nervous System

•  Fight or flight response

  • Helps deal with stressful events (excitatory)

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Helps with normal body maintenance and calming effects (inhibitory)

What are the Two common types of neural cells that form the basis of the nervous system and are the building blocks of all behavior and mental processes?

Glial cells and Neurons

Glial Cells

• Provide structure, insulation, communication, and waste transport

Neurons

Used to transmit information and come in three types

Sensory Neurons(afferent)

• Relay information from the senses to the brain and spinal cord

Motor Neurons(effere

• Communicate with the muscles and glands to promote action and/or movement

Interneurons

• Act as a bridge (relay neurons) between sensory and motor neurons

The Neuron has three major structures

Cell body/soma, dendrites, axons

Cell Body/Soma

• Cytoplasm

• Nucleus(with chromosomes)

• Mitochondria (perform metabolism)

• Ribosomes(synthesises proteins)

Dendrites

Extend outward from the soma, Receive input, Named after the Greek word for “little trees”

Axons

• Emerge from the soma as a single conducting fiber

• Ends in tips called presynaptic terminals

  • AKA terminal buttons, boutons, or telodendria

• Contains structures called vesicles which store neurotransmitters

• Covered by an insulating myelin sheath

  • Functions to speed up neural impulses

What can the degrading of the myelin sheath lead to?

Demyelinating diseases

Most common demyelinating disease?

• Most common example os multiple sclerosis

  • The immune system attacks the myelin sheath or the cells that produce and maintain it

  • Causes inflammation and injury to the sheath and ultimately to the nerve fibers that surround it 

Spinal Reflex Arc

• A spinal reflex arc is a fast, automatic neural pathway that controls an involuntary response to a stimulus

• Spinal Reflexes 

  • Occur in the spinal cord without input from the brain

  • Used when there is a need for immediate action in response to a dangerous stimuli

Neural Transmission Process

• 1. A bio-electric impulse is transmitted down the length of the axon, called an action potential

• 2. When the electrical impulse reaches the presynaptic terminals at the end of the axon, it triggers the release of neurotransmitters from the vesicle

• 3. The space between neurons is called the synapse

  • Neurotransmitters cross the synaptic gap to the dendrites of another neuron

  • If the neurotransmitter makes the neuron more likely to fire: excitatory

  • If the neurotransmitter makes the neuron less likely to fire: Inhibitory

How do PNS and CNS interact?

PNS sends sensory input to CNS and CNS sends motor output to PNS

When does a neuron undergo depolarization?

• A neuron undergoes depolarization, and upon reaching the threshold point, it generates the action potential

What is depolarization?

•  Depolarization is a shift in a neuron's membrane potential that makes the inside of the cell less negative (or more positive), which is the core mechanism that triggers an action potential during neural transmission 

All-or-none principle

A neuron will either fire or not fire; there is no in between

What is the space between neurons called?

Synapse, synaptic gap/cleft

Name all the Neurotransmitters

Dopamine, Serotonin, Norepinephrine, Glutamate. GABA, Endorphins, Substance P, Acetylcholine

Which Neurotransmitter is primariliy involved in processing smooth and coordinated gross motor movements, attention, and learning?

Dopamine

Which Neurotransmitter reinforces the effects of several abused drugs? Is a

Dopamine

The death of what neurons of this Neurotransmitter causes Parkinson’s disease?

Dopamine

Underproduction of what Neurotransmitter leads to depression, schizophrenia, and psychosis?

Dopamine

What Neurotransmitter plays a role in the regulation of mood, control of eating, sleep, arousal, regulation of pain and dream control?

Serotonin

What Neurotransmitter do antidepressants increase

Serotonin

What is serotonin syndrome?

 When excessive serotonin levels can lead to diarrhea, restlessness, high blood pressure, fever, and in extreme cases, seizures

What neurotransmitter is found in neurons in the autonomic nervous system?

Norepinephrine

What neurotransmitter governs sympathetic arousal by activ

What

What neurotransmitter of higher than normal levels can lead to high blood pressure, rapid or irregular heatbeat and anxiety

Norepinephrine

What neurotransmitter is also released by the adrenal gland as a hormone?

Norepinephrine

What neurotransmitter stimulates receptors associated with learning and memory as well as sensory and motor functions?

Glutamate

What is the most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain?

Glutamate

Overabundance of what NT can lead to migraine headaches

Glutamate

What NT is often connected with MSG(monosodium…) in foods

Glutamate

What NT inhibits the firing of neurons?

GABA

What is the most abundant inhibitory NT in the brain?

GABA

What NT is associated with calming effects?

GABA

Lack of what NT leads to seizures, insomnia, tremors, anxiety, epilepsy, and Huntington’s disease?

GABA

What NT is released by the pituitary gland as a hormone, and by the hypothalamus as a NT?

Endorphins

What NT is known as the natural pain reliever?

Endorphins

What NT helps reduce stress?

Endorphins

Excess of what NT can lead to insomnia, sleep apnea and addictive behaviors

Endorphins

What NT regulates bone cartilage and cartilage metabolism?

Substance P

What NT helps heal bone fractures?

Substance P

What NT is released to help reduce stress?

Substance P

Elevated levels of what NT leads to inflammatort bowel disease, depressive disoreder, and fibromyalgia

Substance P

What NT causes contraction of skeletal muscles?

Acetylcholine

What NT regulates heart muscles

Acetylcholine

What NT promotes arousal in the brain

Acetylcholine

What NT transmits messages between the brain and spinal cord

Acetylcholine

Depletion of what NT leads to Alzhiemers disease

Acetylcholine

Excessive amountrs of what NT causes cramping, more saliva, blurry vision, and paralysis

Acetylcholine

Excitatory and Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

• Excitatory: When the neurotransmitter makes the neuron more likely to fire

  • Glutamate

  • Acetylcholine

  • Norepinephrine

  • Dopamine

• Inhibitory: when the neurotransmitter makes the neuron less likely to fire

  • Gaba

  • Serotonin

  • Dopamine

Hormones

• The endocrine system uses hormones to perform actions similar to neurotransmitters

  • The endocrine system is regulated by the pituitary gland

    • Located in the brain under the control of the Hypothalamus

Hormones to know

Adrenaline, Leptin, Ghrelin, Melatonin, Oxytocin

What hormone is secreted by adrenal glands in conditions of stress?

Adrenaline

What hormone increases heart rate, respiration, and metabolism of carbohydrates

Adrenaline

What hormone is released by adipose(fat) tissue

Leptin

What hormone regulates appetite, energy balanace, and body weight

Leptin

What is called the hunger hormone

Ghrelin

What hormone is produced in the stomach

Ghrelin

What hormone stiumlates appetite

Ghrelin

What hormone is produced by the brain

Melatonin

What hormone regulates the sleep-wake cycle

Melatonin

What hormone is secreted by the hypothalamus

Oxytocin

What hormone is involved in childbirth(uterine contractions, social recognition, relationship formation, and emotional attachment)

Oxytocin

What hormone can also be a NT

Oxytocin

Which can act faster ? NTs or hormones?

neurotransmitters

What do psychoactive drugs interfere with

Normal functioning of the nervous system

Agonists

psychoactive drug that Encourage neural firing

Antagonist

Psychoactive drug that inhibits neural firing

What effects can psychoactive drugs have

• Can have psychological and physiological effects

  • Psychological (mental processes and behavior)

  • Physiological psychological functioning of the body)

Categories of psychoactive drugs

Stimulants, Depressants, Hallucinogens, and Opioids