AP Human Geography Unit 2: Population & Migration

187 flashcards covering Chapter 2 Population and Chapter 3 Migration: vocabulary, formulas, DTM, ETM, migration transition, policies, and examples. Based on the supplied class notes; historical figures are labeled.

Overpopulation

When population exceeds an environment's ability to support it at an acceptable standard of living; depends on resources, conditions, population size, and living standards.

Four major population clusters

East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Europe; together hold about two-thirds of the world's population in the notes.

East Asian population cluster

China, Japan, and surrounding areas.

South Asian population cluster

India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and surrounding areas.

Southeast Asian population cluster

Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand, and neighboring countries.

Why are major population clusters densely settled?

Fertile soil, temperate climates, low-lying land, rivers, and coastal access support agriculture, transportation, trade, and development.

Four sparsely populated environments

Dry lands, wet lands, cold lands, and high lands.

Why are dry and wet lands sparsely populated?

Dry lands lack water; wet lands may have excessive rain, flooding, and difficult growing conditions.

Why are cold and high lands sparsely populated?

Cold lands have extreme temperatures and short growing seasons; high lands have steep terrain, transportation difficulties, and limited farmland.

Ecumene

The portion of Earth's surface occupied by permanent human settlements; technology has expanded it, and not all inhabited areas are dense.

Population concentration figures in the notes

About 75% of people live on 5% of Earth's surface; oceans cover roughly 71% of Earth's surface.

Population cartogram

A map resizing countries according to population rather than actual land area; more populous countries appear larger.

Arithmetic density

Total population ÷ total land area; measures overall population concentration.

Physiological density

Total population ÷ arable land; measures population pressure on food-producing land.

Arable land

Land suitable for growing crops.

High physiological density

Each unit of farmland must support more people; Egypt and the Netherlands are examples in the notes.

Low physiological density

The United States and Canada have relatively less population pressure per unit of farmland in the notes.

Agricultural density

Number of farmers ÷ arable land; indicates agricultural labor intensity and technology.

Low agricultural density

Few farmers per unit of farmland, often because machinery increases productivity; examples include the United States and Canada.

High agricultural density

Many farmers per unit of farmland, often reflecting labor-intensive agriculture; India and Bangladesh are examples.

Can arithmetic density be low while physiological density is high?

Yes. A country may have much land but little arable land, concentrating pressure on its limited farmland.

Crude Birth Rate (CBR)

Annual live births per 1,000 people; annual live births ÷ total population × 1,000.

Crude Death Rate (CDR)

Annual deaths per 1,000 people; annual deaths ÷ total population × 1,000.

Natural Increase Rate (NIR)

Percentage population change from births and deaths, excluding migration; NIR (%) = (CBR − CDR) ÷ 10.

Why divide CBR minus CDR by 10 for NIR?

CBR and CDR are per 1,000; dividing by 10 converts the difference into a percentage.

NIR example: CBR 30 and CDR 10

(30 − 10) ÷ 10 = 2% natural increase.

Total Fertility Rate (TFR)

Average number of children a woman is expected to have during her childbearing years, typically ages 15–49.

TFR patterns in the notes

Higher in sub-Saharan Africa and lower in Europe; the roughly 2.5 global figure is historical.

Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)

Deaths of infants under age one per 1,000 live births; infant deaths ÷ live births × 1,000.

What can high IMR indicate?

Limited healthcare, sanitation, nutrition, or other resources.

Doubling time

Years required for a population to double if its growth rate remains constant.

Rule of 70

Doubling time ≈ 70 ÷ annual growth rate (%); at 2% growth, doubling time is about 35 years.

Why can a lower growth rate still produce a larger numerical increase?

A larger population base: 2% of 1 billion is 20 million, but 1% of 8 billion is 80 million.

Historical global NIR peak in the notes

About 2.2% in 1963, followed by a decline.

Regional natural increase patterns in the notes

Most natural increase occurred in developing countries; Africa and Southwest Asia generally had higher CBR, TFR, and NIR.

Population pyramid

A graph of a population's age and sex composition.

How do you read a population pyramid?

Age groups, usually five-year intervals, on the vertical axis; population share on the horizontal axis; males left, females right; youngest at bottom.

Expansive population pyramid

Broad-based triangular shape indicating high birth rates and rapid growth.

Stationary population pyramid

Roughly rectangular shape indicating relatively stable population and low growth.

Constrictive population pyramid

Narrow base indicating low birth rates and an aging or potentially declining population.

Dependency ratio

(Ages 0–14 + ages 65+) ÷ ages 15–64 × 100; compares dependents with working-age people.

What does a high dependency ratio mean?

Greater potential economic pressure on workers to support dependent age groups.

Youth versus elderly dependency

Developing countries often have high youth dependency; developed countries may have high elderly dependency.

Sex ratio

Males per 100 females; male population ÷ female population × 100.

Why do many developed countries have more older women than men?

Women tend to live longer.

Demographic Transition Model (DTM)

A model explaining changes in birth rates, death rates, and natural increase as countries develop.

DTM Stage 1: Low Growth

Very high birth and death rates; little long-term natural increase; deaths fluctuate with disease, famine, and poor sanitation.

Countries in DTM Stage 1

The presentation classifies no country as Stage 1.

DTM Stage 2: High Growth

Birth rates remain high while death rates fall rapidly, producing a large gap and high natural increase.

Why do death rates fall in DTM Stage 2?

Improved medicine, sanitation, nutrition, and reliable food supplies.

Industrial and medical revolutions in the DTM

Europe and North America entered Stage 2 around the Industrial Revolution; many other countries entered later, especially with the medical revolution around 1950.

DTM Stage 3: Moderate Growth

Birth rates fall rapidly, death rates decline more slowly, and positive natural increase decreases.

Why do birth rates fall in DTM Stage 3?

Education, contraception, healthcare, opportunities for women, economic changes, and smaller-family preferences.

DTM Stage 4: Low Growth

Very low birth and death rates, little natural increase, and relatively stable population.

Zero Population Growth (ZPG)

Population size does not increase over time. Births balancing deaths means zero natural increase; total growth also depends on migration.

DTM proposed Stage 5: Decline

Very low births may fall below deaths, causing negative NIR, population aging, fewer women entering childbearing ages, and potential decline.

Examples of aging and low fertility in the notes

Japan and several European countries.

Which DTM stage has the largest birth–death gap?

Stage 2 has the greatest gap and high growth; the gap narrows in Stage 3.

Thomas Malthus

Published An Essay on the Principle of Population in 1798 and argued that population could outgrow food supply.

Malthus's population versus food growth

Population grows geometrically or exponentially; food supply grows arithmetically or linearly.

Criticisms of Malthus

He underestimated agricultural technology, productivity gains, resource expansion, and innovation stimulated by population growth.

Pronatalist policies

Policies encouraging more births through financial incentives, childcare, housing, maternity benefits, or large-family awards.

Historical pronatalist examples

Soviet medals for mothers of multiple children, including ten or more; Nazi Germany's Cross of Honor of the German Mother, 1938–1944.

Antinatalist policies

Policies discouraging high birth rates through family planning, contraception, education, small-family incentives, or birth restrictions.

China's Later, Longer, Fewer policy

Marry later, wait longer before and between births, and have fewer children; notes describe recommendations of two urban children and three rural children.

China's historical One-Child Policy

Introduced in 1979 under Deng Xiaoping to reduce fertility after Mao's period of encouraging population growth.

One-Child Policy incentives in the notes

Medical care, education, housing benefits, maternity leave, and financial bonuses.

One-Child Policy enforcement in the notes

Loss of benefits, employment penalties, restrictions on additional births, and coercive reproductive procedures.

One-Child Policy consequences

Lower birth rates, rural resistance, unregistered births, bribery, sex imbalances, discrimination against girls, population aging, and fewer young workers.

How should China's policy examples be treated?

As historical policies; the notes describe later relaxation and do not describe current restrictions.

Two major strategies for lowering birth rates

Improve education, healthcare, and economic conditions; increase access to contraception.

Potential barrier to contraception

Cultural or religious opposition may limit acceptance.

Epidemiologic Transition Model (ETM)

Explains changing leading causes of death as societies develop; closely connected to the DTM.

ETM Stage 1: Pestilence and Famine

High mortality from infectious and parasitic diseases, famine, and poor sanitation; example: bubonic plague.

ETM Stage 2: Receding Pandemics

Death rates decline as sanitation, medicine, and nutrition reduce disease mortality.

Pandemic

A disease outbreak affecting a very large geographic area and population.

John Snow's cholera investigation

In 1854, he mapped London cholera deaths and linked them to a contaminated water pump, demonstrating the value of geographic disease analysis.

ETM Stage 3: Degenerative Diseases

Chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease and cancer become major causes of death as more people survive to older ages.

ETM Stage 4: Delayed Degenerative Diseases

Medical advances delay deaths from chronic disease and extend life; aging may still raise crude death rates.

ETM proposed Stage 5: Reemerging Infectious Diseases

Infectious diseases become more important again due to treatment resistance, poverty, and increased global connections.

Three reasons for reemerging infectious diseases

Pathogen evolution and drug resistance; poverty and limited sanitation or care; transportation spreading infections rapidly.

Healthcare in developed countries

Generally more spending, physicians, hospital beds, and treatment access; governments often cover a substantial share of costs.

Healthcare in developing countries

Generally fewer resources and less spending or access; patients may pay more of the costs themselves.

Regions with limited healthcare resources in the notes

Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia.

U.S. healthcare spending exception in the notes

The historical figures show a comparatively large private share of spending for a developed country.

Mobility

All forms of human movement, temporary or permanent, including commuting, shopping, and travel.

Circulation

Short-term, repetitive, or cyclical movement; example: students leaving for college each fall and returning each spring.

Migration

A permanent move to a new location.

Immigration

Moving into a location.

Emigration

Moving out of a location.

Net migration

Immigrants − emigrants.

Positive versus negative net migration

Positive: more enter than leave. Negative: more leave than enter.

Ravenstein's Laws of Migration

Nineteenth-century generalizations about migration emphasizing economic opportunity, distance, and migrant characteristics; not universal rules.

Ravenstein: motives and distance

Most migrants move for economic reasons, travel relatively short distances, and remain within the same country.

Ravenstein: long-distance destinations

Long-distance international migrants often move toward major economic centers.

Ravenstein: historical migrant characteristics

Long-distance migrants tended to be male, individual adults rather than families, and young adults seeking jobs rather than children or elderly people.

International migration

A permanent move from one country to another; example: Mexico to the United States.

Internal migration

A permanent move within one country; example: New York to Florida.

Voluntary migration

Moving by choice, often for a job, economic opportunities, or better quality of life.

Forced migration

Being compelled to move by war, persecution, environmental disasters, or other threats.