social psych mid term 1

ethics def

Rules for doing research in a morally right way.

research ethics

1.      Treat people with respect

2. protect animals

3. honest w/ data

what is the Institutional review board (IRB)

A university committee that checks if a study is safe and ethical.

main ethical concerns

1. harm

2. privacy

3. deception

ethical concerns: harm / rule / minimal risk / at risk group

Anything that hurts someone:

• Physical

• Psychological (feeling bad)

• Social (hurting relationships)

• Economic (hurting job/money)

Rule: Benefits must be bigger than risks.

Minimal risk: Same as everyday life

At‑risk groups: Minors, prisoners, people with disabilities

privacy

Confidentiality: You collect names but keep them protected

Anonymity: You don’t collect names at all

ethical concern: Deception

Informed Consent: people enough so they can choose to participate.

Cover story: Fake explanation for the study.

Debriefing: Explain the truth afterward and make sure they feel okay.

self awareness

The self as an object of attention (noticing yourself)

when does self awareness show up

• 18–36 months

• some animals show it

• Mirrors/cameras

• vary in how often

self-awareness theory

When you become self-aware, you compare yourself to your standards.

if you dont match your standards

1.You change your behavior

1. You feel bad about yourself

Fleeing the self

Thinking about yourself too much can feel bad → people distract themselves: TV, reading, alcohol, binge eating, sex, even suicide.

BUT: Self-awareness can make you behave better

Example: Mirror → cheating drops from 70% to <10%

self regulation (self-control)

• TOTE model

• controlling behavior

• thought control

tote model

test- operate- test- exit model - a feedback loop

• Where you are

• If you’re getting closer to your goal

self-control as a muscle

• Every act of self-control uses energy

• You can get “ego depleted” (tired)

• But you can strengthen self-control over time

thought control ( ironic effects / white bear )

Trying not to think about something makes you think about it more.

• Monitoring = automatic

• Operating = effortful → fails when tired

introspection def

thinking about your own thoughts and reasons.

key point of introspection

• People think they have direct access to their mental processes…

• But they don’t.

  • We know WHAT we do (the outcome)

  • We often don’t know WHY we do it (the process)

introspection research: Nisbett & Wilson (1977)

• People failed to report the real reasons for their behavior

• Instead, they gave reasons that did NOT actually influence their behavior

Takeaway: Introspection is unreliable.

self-perception theory

who i am is determined by what i do

• “I do X → so I must be the kind of person who likes X.”

• Behavior → identity

dutton & aron (1976) is this love study

• People misinterpreted arousal from a scary bridge as attraction

• Shows we infer feelings from behavior + context

social environment as self-knowledge (reflected apprasisals)

looking glass self

• “I am who others say I am.”

• We see ourselves through others’ reactions.

social comparison

We understand ourselves by comparing to others.

types of social comparison

upward: comparing to someone better (challenging, depressing)

downwards: comparing to someone worse (unchallenging but rewarding)

• used as a self-esteem maintenance strategy

social comparison mood effects

depressive self comparison cycle

inaccuracy of self-knowledge common belief and Actual research (Taylor & Brown):

common belief: Knowing yourself accurately = good mental health

actual research (taylor & brown): Too much accuracy can hurt mental health. People with positive illusions are often happier and more resilient.

positive illusions

1. judgement illusions- unrealistically postive self judgements

2. illusions of control- how much we control our own fate

3. unrealistic optimism

judgement self illusions

• Unrealistically positive beliefs about yourself

• Happens for creativity, intelligence, imagination

• More positive illusions → better mental health

anthropomorphic illusions

• Lonely people give human traits to pets/objects

• Also more likely to believe in supernatural forces

illusions of control

• Feeling like you control things you actually don’t

  • Example: “illusory thermostat”

  • Superstitious behavior

entity vs incremental theories (dweck)

Entity- we are born with fixed abilities

incremental- skills are learned and achievable

unrealistic optism

believing:

• good things happen to you

• bad things happen to others

• ex: bungee jumpers/ gamblers

self - presentation

controlling how others see you

when do we self-present

1. When others are watching

2. When their opinions affect our goals

3. When the goal matters

4. When their impression ≠ the impression we want

who self-presents?

everyone

self-monitoring

• Using others’ reactions to guide your behavior

high self-monitors

• Adapt easily

• Change behavior to fit what others want

• Social chameleons

low self monitors

• Act based on their own beliefs

• Stay consistent across situations

3 common goals in self-presentation

appear

1. likeable → ingratiation

2. competent → self-promotion

3. powerful → status & power displays

ingratiation

attempts to get others to like us

flattery can get you everywhere

We spot fake praise about others easily, but miss it when it’s about ourselves.

expressing liking for others: ask

• ask for advice : Signals respect → increases liking

• ben franklin effect: People like you more after they do you a favor.

ingratiation strategies

1. expressing liking for others

2. creating similarity

3. projecting modesty

creating similarity: zanna & pack study

a desirable man had a higher amount of attitude conformity than an undesirable man

projecting modesty

Downplaying achievements → increases social warmth.

self promotion

attempts to get others to see us as competent

trapping of competence

Look/act like an expert (props, attire, behavior).

claiming competence

highlight skills, achievements

“im a docter”

making excuses

augmenting principle- If success occurs despite obstacles → ability seems higher.

discounting principle- If success occurs with help → ability seems lower.

self-handicapping

Creating excuses before performance to protect ego if failure occurs.

types of self-handicapping

preconstructed excuses- “I’m sick/tired/stressed” before evaluation.

reduced effort/ increased distraction- not studying → failure blamed on effort, not ability

both- self handicap

who self-handicaps

People who believe past success was due to external factors (luck, help, easy tasks).

power

ability to influence others; status = respect/esteem.

status and power enhancement strategies

1. artifacts of status- Titles, luxury items, symbols of rank.

2. conspicuous consumption- Displaying wealth publicly to signal power.

3. nonverbal dominance- Open, asymmetric posture/ Strong eye contact/ Approaching personal space/ Expansive movements (puffing up, stiffening back)/ Forward body lean

scientific discipline

interplay of theory and evidence

steps to research

1. observation

2. hypothesis

3. method

4. collecting data

5. analyze data

6. report results

types of hypothesis

descriptive- predicts a pattern/event (includes prediction)

explanatory- predicts AND explains why (includes prediction and mechanism)

operationalizing variables → makes hypothesis measurable

Turning abstract concepts → measurable actions

isolating independent and dependent variables

correlational studies

• No manipulation

• All variables measured

• Correlation coefficient: –1 to +1

• Strength = absolute value

• Can predict, cannot infer causation

interpreting correlations

Interpretation	Meaning
X → Y	Violent TV causes aggression
Y → X	Aggressive kids choose violent TV
Z → X & Y	Third variable causes both

Correlation ≠ Causation

research settings

laboratory- high control / low realm

field- high realm / low control

core principles in research ethics

• Respect human participants

• Care for animal welfare

• Be honest with data

Psychologists didn’t publish a formal code until

1953

Little Albert (Watson & Raynor, 1920)

• Paired loud noise with bunny → conditioned fear

• Generalized fear to all white/fluffy objects

Violated consent, protection, and debriefing

Milgram’s Obedience Study

Participants believed they were shocking someone. Increasing voltage → distress. Wanted to stop → experimenter pressured to continue

Violated protection from harm & informed consent