AP U.S. Government: Congress, Courts, and Executive Power

Delegate

A representative who votes strictly according to the explicit preferences and wishes of their constituents.

Trustee

A representative who votes based on their own best judgment and conscience, trusting what is best for constituents.

Politico

A representative who acts as a delegate on issues constituents care deeply about, and as a trustee on complex or lesser-known issues.

Necessary and Proper Clause

Article I clause giving Congress implied powers to pass laws required to execute its enumerated powers (also called the Elastic Clause).

Enumerated Powers

Powers explicitly written and granted to the federal government in the U.S. Constitution.

Cloture

A Senate procedure used to end a filibuster and limit debate, requiring a three-fifths majority vote (60 votes).

Filibuster

A Senate tactic used to delay or prevent a vote on a bill by extending debate indefinitely.

Discretionary Spending

Spending that Congress must explicitly approve each year through annual appropriations bills (e.g., defense, education).

Mandatory Spending

Spending required by existing law for entitlement programs (e.g., Social Security, Medicare) without annual congressional approval.

Gridlock

A state of political stalemate where government action stalls because opposing parties cannot reach agreement.

Redistricting

The redrawing of state legislative and congressional district boundaries by states following a census to reflect population shifts.

Reapportionment

The reallocation of seats in the House of Representatives among the states based on population changes recorded every 10 years.

Pork Barrel

Government spending for localized projects secured primarily to bring federal funds and political favor to a representative's home district.

Logrolling

An agreement by two or more lawmakers to support each other's bills through vote trading.

Federalist No. 70

Essay by Alexander Hamilton arguing for a single, strong, and energetic executive (President) to ensure accountability and quick decision-making.

Federalist No. 78

Essay by Alexander Hamilton arguing for an independent judiciary with life tenure for judges and the power of judicial review.

Marbury v. Madison

1803 landmark case establishing the power of judicial review, granting courts the authority to declare laws unconstitutional.

Stare Decisis

The legal principle of adhering to legal precedent set by past court rulings when deciding new cases ("let the decision stand").

Judicial Restraint

A judicial philosophy in which judges strictly interpret the law and Constitution, deferring policy creation to elected legislatures.

Judicial Activism

A judicial philosophy in which judges interpret the Constitution broadly to protect rights and create public policy through decisions.

Judicial Review

The power of courts to review and declare legislative or executive acts unconstitutional.

Delegated Discretionary Authority

The power granted by Congress to executive agencies to decide how laws are interpreted, enforced, and implemented.

Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act

1883 law establishing that federal government jobs must be awarded based on merit rather than political patronage (spoils system).

United States v. Lopez

1995 Supreme Court case ruling that Congress exceeded its Commerce Clause authority with the Gun-Free School Zones Act, limiting federal power.

Commerce Clause

Article I clause giving Congress the power to regulate trade with foreign nations, among the several states, and with Native American tribes.

War Powers Resolution

1973 law intended to limit executive military power by requiring the President to notify Congress within 48 hours of deploying troops.

Baker v. Carr

1962 landmark case ruling that redistricting issues are justiciable in federal courts, establishing the principle of "one person, one vote."

Shaw v. Reno

1993 landmark case ruling that redistricting plans based predominantly on race must meet strict scrutiny, prohibiting racial gerrymandering.