PSYCH 201 - chapters 6,7,&8

43. What purposes do emotions serve?

Brief, specific, subjective psychological and physiological responses Facial expressions Physiological expressions Help people meet goals - many of which are social Help us interpret our environment Prompt us to act Enable us to respond effectively to specific challenges and opportunities we face

44. What are the six universal emotions? What does it mean that they are universal?

Happiness Surprise Sadness Anger Disgust Fear All humans have the same facial muscles and express emotions similarly across cultures

45. What are the cultural differences in the expression of emotions? Give examples

Cultures differ in the emotions they value or idealize - associated with cultural values US (value independence) - excitement East asian countries ( value interdependence, harmony)- calmness and contentment

46. What are the 5 dimensions of moral foundations theory? How do they relate to political Ideology?

harm/care fairness/cheating loyalty/betrayal authority/subversion purity/degradation extreme liberals rely on harm and fairness, and conservatives rely moderately on all 5

Affective forecasting

predicts future emotions, such as whether an event will result in happiness or anger or sadness, and for how long People are bad at affective forecasting because of IMMUNE NEGLECT

Immune neglect

tendency to underestimate our resilience during negative life events

Focalism

tendency to focus on only one aspect of an experience or event when trying to predict future emotions

48. How do the peak, end, and duration of an experience influence our memories of emotional Events?

Our memories of emotional events are shaped primarily by how intense the experience was at its highest point and how it felt at the very end, while the length of the event matters very little.

49. What is the concept of display rules?

Cultural rules that govern how, when, and to whom people express emotion

50. What did Fischer and colleagues find about gender, culture, and emotion?

The general gender pattern of emotional reporting—where women report experiencing and expressing more powerless emotions (such as sadness and fear), and men report more powerful, antagonistic emotions (such as anger)—is universal, with only minor variations tied to a country's gender empowerment level

51. What did research with sighted and blind athletes suggest about emotional expression?

Atheltes who are blind vs. not blind showed the same facial expressions after winning and after losing, even though they had never seen another person's emotional expression

52. What are focal emotions, and how can they differ across cultures?

Focal emotions - emotions that are especially common in a given culture Mexico-pride Tibet-kindness Japan-modesty Interdependent cultures-shame and embarrassment

Module 6, Chapter 7

Attitudes, Behavior, and Rationalization

53. What is the role of introspection when it comes to predicting behavior from attitudes?

54. What is cognitive dissonance theory?

When we behave in a way that is inconsistent with preexisting clear, important attitudes and there are clear reasons to feel uncomfortable and aroused

55. What is post-decision dissonance?

Psychological discomfort or anxiety a person feels after making a hard choice between multiple appealing options

56. When should researchers utilize implicit measures?

Used when people may be unwilling or unable to report their true feelings or opinions

57. What factors influence the amount of cognitive dissonance we experience? Or, said another way, under what conditions does attitude-behavior inconsistency cause dissonance?

Free choice If behavior is chosen freely Insufficient justification If there is a low incentive for performing a counterattitudinal behavior Negative consequences ( someone is negatively affected by your behavior) Foreseeability

58. What are the effects of small or large payments on dissonance after doing something against our attitudes?

Small payments create high cognitive dissonance and lead people to change their actual attitudes to match their behavior, while large payments create low cognitive dissonance and prevent attitude change.

59. What is self-perception theory?

People come to know their own attitudes by looking at their behavior and the context in which it occurred and inferring what their attitudes might be  when we don't have a clear, solidified attitude, or when the attitude isn't important

60. When is cognitive dissonance theory in action?

a person experiences mental discomfort or tension because their behavior conflicts with a pre-existing, firmly held belief or attitude

When is self-perception theory in action?

when a person has no strong or established prior attitude about something, so they look back at their own behavior to figure out how they feel

61. In the Aronson & Carlston experiment, when did children experience the most dissonance?

Children who refrained from playing with the toy under a mild threat (e.g., the experimenter saying they would be "mildly annoyed") had low external justification for their behavior. Because the threat wasn't scary enough on its own to explain why they didn't touch the toy, they faced a strong internal contradiction ("I want to play with it, but I am not playing with it").

62. What is effort justification?

Psychological tendency to overvalue an outcome or goal simply because you worked hard or suffered to achieve it

63. What conclusions did Harmon-Jones and Harmon-Jones draw about cognitive dissonance Theory?

Cognitive dissonance and its associated negative affect can be generated by a cognitive discrepancy alone, even when no negative or aversive consequences occur. Dissonance exists to facilitate effective, unconflicted behavior

64. What did the horse-bettor study suggest about commitment and confidence in a decision?

Making a final commitment to a decision instantly and significantly increases a person's confidence in that choice.

Module 7, Chapter 8

Persuasion

65. What are the two routes to persuasion according to the Elaboration-Likelihood Model (ELM)? Peripheral and central route

Peripheral route

not motivated or not able to think carefully about the message (low elaboration)

Central route

the issue is knowledgeable and relevant

66. What role do attention, motivation, and ability play in persuasion?

67. What is the sleeper effect?

Messages from unreliable sources tend to be rejected initially, but over time become accepted The sleeper effect typically only occurs if the unreliable source is known after reading the message, not before

68. What is the role of attractiveness, certainty, and credibility in persuasion?

Attractiveness-More attractive people are more persuasive

halo effect Certainty-fear, age Credibility - Is the source reliable or not? Credible sources have both expertise and trustworthiness Experts are more persuasive

69. Under what conditions is fear an effective method of persuasion? Under what conditions is it not effective?

Scares people to get the point across and influences them to stop, e.g., smoking → causes people to tune out the message, resulting in a lack of persuasion → Fear only works when concrete instructions accompany fear

70. How might the characteristics of the audience affect the persuasive message? Age? Mood? Need for cognition?

Age - young people are more persuadable than old people (Sears, 1986) Mood - a negative or positive mood increases persuasion Need for cognition (Cacioppo et al., 1982) - the degree to which someone thinks deeply about things High NFC people are persuaded by central cues Low NFC people are persuaded by peripheral cues

71. What is the self-validation hypothesis?

a psychological concept proposed by Pablo Briñol and Richard E. Petty that states thoughts become more influential on judgments, attitudes, and actions when people feel confident in them

72. How can one protect their attitudes against persuasion attempts?

selective attention - People seek out and tune into information that supports their pre-existing attitudes People avoid and tune out information that contradicts their pre-existing attitudes

73. What is attitude inoculation? Resisting a “small” attack on our attitude makes us better able to resist “larger” attacks later on

74. How can cultural values influence which kinds of persuasive appeals are effective?

Individualistic - Appeals focused on personal benefits, unique identity, individual freedom, and self-improvement are most effective. Collectivistic cultures - Appeals emphasizing group consensus, family well-being, shared duty, and community reputation work best.

75. How can thinking about an attitude affect its strength or extremity?

Thinking about an issue tends to produce more extreme, resistant attitudes When you are free to think about something, you naturally think about the arguments you already know – this will reinforce your current attitude